Understanding Modern Imperialism
Osterhammel in his theoretical overview of Colonialism gives us a very good description and distinction of each definition: colony, colonization, colonialism, empire, imperialism. Very often these terms are seen and perceived as almost synonyms, which is according to Jurgen, is not correct. He also empathizes that the notion of “colonialism” is versatile, that it is “a phenomenon of colossal vagueness” and “it must be seen from all angles” (Osterhammel, 4), so he makes sure to explain it in his chapters.
According to Osterhammel, “colonization” is a process of territorial acquisition, “colony” is a particular type of sociopolitical organization, and “colonialism” is a system of domination (Osterhammel, 4). In this review by Osterhammel, colonialism as a matter of discussion and research, takes central place, as a “modern imperialism” it takes three additional components, which make it distinctive. First of all, it’s not just relationship between someone who rules and someone who submits (someone in the meaning of a whole territory and its population), but relationship in which “an entire society is robbed off its historical line of development, externally manipulated and transformed according to the needs and interests of the colonial rulers” (Osterhammel, 15). Secondly, is the difference between colonizers and colonized. The colonizers were not willing to assimilate and to accept, value and practice cultural differences and customs of the colonized. Final point is close to the second one, “modern imperialism is also a particular interpretation of relationships, it’s an ideological formation” (Osterhammel, 16).Additionally, Osterhammel points out the difference between “colonization” and “colony” by saying that colonization can occur without forming colonies, as it happened during North America’s westward expansion in the 19th century. And vice versa, colonies can emerge from military conquest and is not always followed by colonization. It’s also important to note, that there is no compound history of colonialism as a whole, only separate colonialisms, which makes it harder to study, examine and compare them today.
Understanding modern imperialism without reading Headrick, and Burbank/Cooper is nearly impossible, as they give us a much deeper insight into why and how invasions occurred. They, in particular, offer sustained considerations of the origins, nature, and limits of modern imperialism in their articles. Headrick’s analysis and summary of technological progress in terms of imperialism provide a new dimension to what is considered “modern imperialism”, and he is giving credit to all the technological advances and calls them “tools” of imperialism. Headrick claims that “means and motives were not rival but congruent causes of the new imperialism, and that a model that accounted for changes in the means as well as the motives was more realistic than the conventional one which emphasized one aspect and ignored the other” (Headrick, 262). By describing the evolution of ships, Headrick shows the eagerness of the British to achieve more and try to travel further and further, go in the open ocean and sail to Africa and areas they’ve never been to. He says “Steamers soon became pioneers in imperialism”(Headrick 236). When talking about many conquerors and their use of steamboat, he highlights that: “Given the difficult topography and flora of much of Africa, it is doubtful that Europeans could have penetrated the continent so fast or dominated it so thoroughly if they had had to do so on foot” (Headrick, 247). Another great tool he talks about is quinine, the remedy for malaria, which was invented by French chemists, and which “opened the gates to the European invasion of Africa” (Headrick, 246). And finally, the advancement of firearms in order to invade the territory with the resistance of its inhabitants: “No period in history produced so dramatic a development of infantry weapons as the nineteenth century” (Headrick, 248). Even though initially it was developed for the use among Europeans and Americans, “ironically this new technology changed the balance of power in the non-Western world far more than it did in the West itself” (Headrick, 248).
Another point of view is presented by Burbank and Cooper in their “Imperial Repertoires and Myths of Modern Colonialism”, where they talk about racism being the defining feature in modern imperialism as it was used in colonialist ideology and was used to justify intervention. Burbank and Cooper expand on this by using examples of times when Europeans sought to civilize their subjects, the importance of racial ideology and organizations such as mission societies to educate individuals, causing the racial line to be blurred. They talk about ideology and the way Europeans treated the conquered territory due to racism: “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line.” (Burbank and Cooper, 327). Comparing to earlier times, during modern imperialism which Burbank/Cooper and Hoschild describes, the invaders felt superior and that’s why there was no acculturation or understanding the culture of the conquered country. According to Hoschild, “To see Africa as a continent of coherent societies, each with its own culture and history, took a leap of empathy, a leap that few, if any, of the early European or American visitors to the Congo were able to make” (Hoschild 101). The cruel invasion of Congo by King Leopold, which is also the result of racism, is also described by Hochsild: “All along the rivers, columns of exhausted men, carrying baskets of lumpy gray rubber on their heads, sometimes walked twenty miles or more to assemble near the houses of European agents, who sat on their verandas and weighed the loads of rubber.” (Hochschild 163).
It’s also important to note the social and political dimensions of colonialism, where Headrick downplays these elements, because he assumes political and social are embedded within technological innovations, but he doesn’t elaborate on this topic.
Since colonization is “a fundamental phenomenon of world history” (Osterhammel, 4), Osterhammel also describes six major forms of these processes of expansion: the total migration of whole populations, mass individual migration, border colonization, overseas settlement colonization, empire-building wars of conquest and the construction of networks of naval bases.Probably one of the most important forms of the expansion is empire-building wars of conquest or the “classic or Roman form of establishing the rule of one people over another.” (Osterhammel, 8). Thus, the author adds to the discussion such definitions as “empire” and “imperialism”; we can see the difference between these two and can notice, that these are not same notions, since imperialism is a broader meaning and it actually involves colonialism. “The idea of empire assumes that several “peripheries” are subordinated to the empire’s center in a star-shaped configuration” (Osterhammel, 18). And “Imperialism is the concept that comprises all forces and activities contributing to the construction and maintenance of transcolonial empires” (Osterhammel, 21).
Osterhammel also talks about three elements of colonialist ideology, which are the construction of inferior “otherness”, belief in mission and guardianship, and utopia of non-politics. The author believes that this ideology was the reason that the impact of cross-cultural contact during colonialism was prevented.
Having read Osterhammel, Headrick, Burbank/Cooper and Hochschild, I questioned all of my previous understandings and views on imperialism and colonialism, but at the same time got so many answers and new views on modern imperialism. I used to think that the main revelation for me is that it can actually be a good thing for a given territory. However, now I think of why and how invasion took place, by which means, and what limited the colonial power in the 19th century. As Headrick pays our attention to technological shift that took place and thus influenced the imperialism process: “It is sometimes asserted that the rapid progress of Western technology in the 19th century was a major determinant of the imperialist drive…” (Headrick, 232). And Burbank/Cooper and Hochschild focus on racism, culture and the role of local resistance on shaping the limits of colonial power. I believe now, it’s important to read everyone’s opinion and get a broader understanding of modern imperialism and view it from different angles.
Working Definitions
Colonialism: a system where one country and its population dominates over another one, takes it from its course of development and makes it submit to the needs and interests of the dominating country, whose rulers are convinced that they are superior;
Imperialism: is the idea of constructing, maintaining, and controlling empires, spreading its politics not only nationally but worldwide.
Colony: a conquered country or a part of a country/territory that was taken control over involuntarily (by invasion) by a country/empire located far away (very often but not always), and which is being possessed solely by that country/empire and according to its laws;
Empire: a group of peripheral countries / territories, that are subordinated to one single center of authority;
Colonialist Ideology: is a set of principles and statements by colonizers that influenced the course of colonialism and prevented any lasting impact of cross-cultural contacts.
Steamboat: a boat that is propelled by a steam engine, especially a paddle-wheel craft of a type used widely on rivers in the 19th century.
Racial Ideology: belief in the superiority of a particular race”.
Technological shift: is when new technology was introduced in 19th century and altered radically the process of colonialism and imperialism.
Opium war: a war (1839-1842) between China and Britain resulting from the Chinese refusal to allow the importation of opium from India. China ceded Hong Kong after the British victory in 1842.
Questions for Further Inquiry
- According to Osterhammel, Belarus basically went through decolonization and became sovereign from Soviet Union in 1991?
- When did “modern imperialism” start time wise and why do historians take that point as a start point for it?
About the image:
Title: “Une caravane marchande”
Creator: Liebig’s Extract of Meat Company, 1907.
“Une caravane marcahande” – means A Merchant Caravan from French. This image shows a caravan – a group of people whose territory was colonized, who carry things from one area to another one for trade or sale or to their families to survive.