Latin America and the Caribbean: Cultures and Societies

Our Class

Grounded in cinematic texts, this interdisciplinary online course examined Indigenous, African, and multiracial experiences, resistance, and rebellions in Latin American history, society, and culture since pre-Colombian times. It looked at European and US colonialism and neo-colonialism while also presenting ongoing decolonial, feminist, migrant, and anti-racist struggles and networks of solidarity. It emphasized different socio-cultural, musical, literary, and political contributions of Latin American and Caribbean people and the implications of these manifestations for nation-building and diasporic identities.

“Oubao Moin” – Juan Antonio Corretjer

The title of this song means “Island of Blood” in the Taino language.  It was written by Puerto Rican poet Juan Antonio Corretjer. The music was composed by nueva trova artists Roy Brown and Aires Bucaneros to tell the history of Puerto Ricans throughout many centuries. It is an acknowledgment of working-class people everywhere in El Caribe. The song is also representative of Latin America as a whole, as it discusses the struggle of Indigenous, Afro-descendants, and indentured workers to be free from all forms of colonialism.

The Corozal River of the golden legend carries gold; its current is bloodied. The River Manatuabón has a golden legend; its current carries gold and is bloodied. The River Cibuco writes its name with golden letters; its current carries gold and is bloodied. Where the plantation (Arboleda) sank its roots in the golden ground, the branches drip blood; the plantation (Arboleda) is bloodied.

Where the Indian’s brow frowned, whether on land or water, under the weight of the chains, in prison irons, there, the land stinks of blood, and the water is bloodied.

Where the Africans broke their shoulders, whether on land or water, and the branding iron marked their bodies, and the whip opened their back, there, the land stinks of blood, and the water runs bloodied.

Where the poor white suffered the horrors of indentured labor under the machete of the overseer and the account book  (libreta de jornales) of the working day
There, the land is cursed, and the water runs poisoned.

Glory to those Taino hands because they worked. Glory to those Black hands because they worked. Glory to those white hands because they worked. From those hands was brought forth our homeland.

Glory to the hands that dug the mines. Glory to the hands that cared for the livestock. Glory to the hands that sow the tobacco, the cane, and the coffee. Glory to the hands that worked the roads. Glory to the hands that turn the wheels. Glory to all the hands of all the men and women who worked.

And glory to the hands, all the hands that work today, because they build, and from them shall come our newly liberated country. Praise! For them and for their homeland. Praise!

Group Discussion

The song “Oubao Moin” proposes looking at the past to start imagining societal transformations and liberated futures. How have we engaged with these ideas in this class?

What have you learned as we discussed the different sources? How can we use those ideas in our respective academic and professional fields?

What stays with you from this course?

How do history, film, music, and the arts help to bring change in our individual and collective lives?

Cultural-Spiritual Factors in Reggae’s Evolution

Rastafarianism (Afro-centric religion and culture; people’s nationalism: a return to the ideals of independence; emancipation)

Rastafarianism was an indigenous fusion of messianism and millenarianism, anti-colonialism, and Black nationalism, and it gave the cause of “Black supremacy” spiritual, political, and social dimensions. The religion found a fast following in the impoverished western Kingston ghettos, especially in the Back-O-Wall yard, where Rastas constructed a camp of wood and tin. Through the mid-1960s, amidst frequent and constant run-ins with the colonial authorities, their influence over the tenement yards grew. (Chang 23-4)

“Selassie is the Chapel” by Bob Marley

Entry Questions

Marley dives into Bob Marley’s life as a Rastafarian, including his relationships, family, and health struggles. How does the documentary balance his patriarchal complexities with his public image as a symbol of resistance and unity? How can we connect it to Safiya Sinclair’s critique of Rastafarianism’s masculinist tendencies?

Rebel music: rocksteady, reggae, sound systems and dub

“Noise came up from the streets to fill the space—yard-centric toasts, sufferer moans, analog echoes—the sounds of people’s histories, dub histories, versions not represented in the official version. As musical competition was overshadowed by violent political competition, dub became the sound of a rapidly fragmenting nation—troubling, strange, tragic, wise slow-motion portraits of social collapse.” (Chang 30)

What is your understanding of reggae music after engaging with these sources? Can you identify its key characteristics, themes, or prominent artists (besides Bob Marley) who have contributed to its development?

“Roots, Rock Reggae” by Bob Marley and the Wailers

What is Marley’s definition of Reggae? What does the music do to the listeners?

Presentation(s):

A

Mariano Peralta,Wilver

Remache,Joselito J

B

Sandoval Robles,Giovanni

Yazdan,Melody

Political Factors Involved in the Evolution of 1960-70s Jamaican Music

By the 1970s, the economy, still dependent on the former colonial arrangements, sputtered. Banana farming needed price support and protection. The bauxite and tourist industries—the businesses that extracted more than they put in—were growing but had little effect on an island where more than one in three was unemployed. Here was where the optimism of official nationalism broke down. (23)

.Political corruption and confrontation between two main parties: the Conservative Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) and the democratic socialist People’s National Party (PNP).

.U.S. intervention in Jamaica and economic retreat.

.Violence against the supporters of the opposition; The intermingling of state violence and gang violence.

How does Marley reflect post-independence Jamaica’s social and political struggles, particularly during the 1970s? In what ways did Bob Marley’s music respond to or reflect the tensions between the People’s National Party (PNP) and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP)?

Diaspora

.In 1948, the British Nationality Act gave people from colonies the right to live and work in Britain. The government needed workers to help fill post-war labor shortages and rebuild the economy. Caribbean countries were also struggling economically, and job vacancies in the UK offered an opportunity. Many of those who came became manual workers, drivers, cleaners, and nurses in the newly-established NHS.

.The 1971 Immigration Act gave Commonwealth citizens living in the UK indefinite leave to remain – the permanent right to live and work in the UK. 

This included the Windrush generation and people from other former British colonies in South Asia and Africa.

Racist alarm at the increase in the Black British population led to the Commonwealth Immigrants Act that restricted the entry of immigrants from current and former British colonies. By 1972, only those with work permits or parents or grandparents born in Britain could enter the country, effectively ending most Caribbean immigration.

Here’s Bob Marley’s take on the urban/diasporic experience:

“Concrete Jungle” by Bob Marley

What are his conceptions of captivity and freedom in the song?

Breakout Room Discussions

Group 1
How does Marley portray Bob Marley’s music as a cultural expression and a tool for political and social change?

Group 2

Much of Bob Marley’s music speaks to the struggles of Jamaica’s poor and marginalized communities in urban areas like Trench Town. How does the documentary link Marley’s personal experiences and lyrics to the broader context of economic inequality and systemic oppression in Jamaica during his lifetime?

Group 3
The documentary highlights Bob Marley’s mixed-race identity. How did these aspects of his identity influence his music and his role as a cultural icon?

Group 4
Bob Marley’s embrace of Rastafarianism coincided with its rise as a significant cultural and political movement in Jamaica. How does the documentary portray Marley’s role in amplifying Rastafarianism as a spiritual practice and a form of resistance to colonial and neo-colonial influences in Jamaica?

Group 5

In what ways did his music transcend national boundaries to address global issues? What challenges or tensions are highlighted regarding the worldwide reception and appropriation of reggae?

Entry Question

How can we relate the song “Marcus Garvey” by Burning Spear to Safiya Sinclair’s memoir?

How to Say Babylon by Safiya Sinclair

Safiya Sinclair weaves complex interconnected themes, including nature, colonial exploitation, anticolonial resistance, and the interplay of patriarchy and liberation within the Reggae cultural movement. Her memoir invites readers to grapple with contradictions and consider the realities of life within a Rastafarian family in postcolonial Jamaica.

Historical Context

Rastafarianism, originating in Jamaica in the 1930s, is a spiritual and cultural movement deeply rooted in anticolonial resistance and the reclamation of Afro-descendant identity, history, and knowledge. It arose from the socio-political struggles of Black Jamaicans under British colonial rule and is influenced by Marcus Garvey’s teachings, particularly his prophecy of an African king who would liberate Black people from oppression. The coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1930 was seen by early Rastafarians as the fulfillment of Garvey’s vision, establishing Ethiopia as a sacred homeland and Selassie as a divine figure.

Rastafarians faced significant persecution in Jamaica and across the Caribbean during the mid-20th century. Authorities often criminalized their practices, viewing their critiques of colonialism and Christianity as subversive. The movement’s association with the working class and marginalized communities further fueled stigmatization. 

Spiritual Framework

Rastafarianism’s spiritual framework blends Christian teachings, particularly Old Testament themes, with African cultural and ecological consciousness. This fusion reflects a rejection of “Babylon,” a term used to denote the colonial and capitalist systems that perpetuate oppression and materialism. Rastafarians advocate for a return to a more natural way of life, emphasizing self-sufficiency, communal living, and a deep respect for the earth. Ritual practices often include the use of ganja (marijuana) as a sacrament, vegetarian or ‘ital’ dietary principles, and the centrality of reggae music as a vehicle for spiritual and political expression.

Gender Notions

The movement also encompasses patriarchal structures that position women in subordinate roles, expecting them to serve men and uphold traditional gender norms. Women are encouraged to avoid the perceived corrupting influences of “Babylon” modernization, such as Western-style dress and lifestyles. This gender dynamic has been criticized, even among some within the movement.

Legacy

Rastafarianism has endured and evolved, becoming a global symbol of resistance, spiritual liberation, and Afro-diasporic pride. Its influence is particularly notable in music through the works of artists like Bob Marley, who popularized Rastafarian ideals and brought attention to its call for justice, unity, and freedom.

Presentation(s):

A

Golding,Taliyah

Kaur,Jasleen

B

Kazi,Tamanna

Lopez,Cindy Marilyn

In-Class Written Reflection

Option One

Elaborate on this quote, focusing on how the tourist industry displaced local communities, closing access to the coastline and sea livelihoods.

“Every year, Black Jamaicans owned less and less of the coastline that bejewelled our island to the outside world, all our beauty bought up by rich hoteliers, or sold off to foreigners by the descendants of white enslavers who earned their fortunes on our backs, and who still own enough of Jamaica today to continue to turn a profit.”

Option Two

Discuss the decline and commodification of the reggae movement and how that might have ignited Sinclair’s father’s resentment over “Babylon.”

“By 1989, when we lived at White House, reggae’s promise of cultural revolution and freedom for Black people had waned. Bob Marley had been dead almost a decade, Selassie dead for almost 15 years, and the Rastafari movement had gone back to the fringes of society, with most reggae musicians relegated to performing cabaret shows at the new palatial resorts devouring our northern coastline. Reggae’s original mission of anticolonial rebellion and spreading the message of Rastafari had been defanged.” 

Option Three

Analyze the following quote considering, Sinclair’s examination of Rastafarianism patriarchal dogma.

“Years later, while cloistered in the countryside and aching for my birthplace by the sea, I would come to understand. There was more than one way to be lost, more than one way to be saved. While my mother had saved me from the waves and gave me breath, my father tried to save me only by suffocation – with ever-increasing strictures, with incense-smoke. With fire. Both had wanted better for me, but only one of them would protect me in the end.”

Conclusion

In this excerpt from the memoir How to Say Babylon, poet Safiya Sinclair reflects on her upbringing in a coastal Jamaican town, where her deep connection to the ocean and nature shaped her early perceptions of the world. She conveys the profound influence of her environment while also critiquing the forces that disrupt and exploit it.

Sinclair delves into the impact of Jamaica’s tourism industry, framing it as a neocolonial enterprise that has systematically stripped Jamaicans of their land, cultural autonomy, and access to the ocean. She argues that the commodification of Jamaica’s natural beauty for foreign consumption perpetuates colonial hierarchies, disenfranchising local communities and eroding their relationship with the land and sea.

The memoir also introduces the concept of Babylon, a central tenet in Rastafarian ideology, which Sinclair defines from an anticolonial perspective. For Rastafarians, Babylon represents the oppressive structures of Western colonialism, slavery, capitalism, and systemic injustice that seek to control and dehumanize. Sinclair skillfully examines this worldview while offering nuanced insights into how it informed her upbringing.

At the same time, Sinclair critically engages with the gender politics within Rastafarianism. She exposes how patriarchal norms are embedded in the movement, highlighting the expectations placed on Rasta women to remain silent, submissive, and obedient to men. This examination reveals the intersection of anticolonial resistance and gendered oppression, complicating the narrative of Rastafarianism as solely a liberatory philosophy.

Central to Sinclair’s narrative is the figure of her father, whose dogmatic interpretation of Rastafarianism casts a shadow over her family life. She portrays him as both a passionate believer in Rastafarian ideals and an authoritarian patriarch whose rigid worldview imposed an oppressive lifestyle on the women in the household. Sinclair explores how his strict adherence to the Rastafarian doctrine not only isolated their family from secular Jamaican society but also stifled her sense of freedom and individuality, leaving a lasting impact on her identity and worldview.

.

Entry Questions

Before the video: What do you know about the ELA (Commonwealth) and Puerto Rico’s political status?

After the video: Why do many people consider the ELA a failure and a masked colonial status?

La Brega‘s host, Alana Casanova-Burgess, traces the history of Levittown’s boom and bust. This massive suburb was founded on bringing the US middle-class lifestyle to Puerto Rico during a time of modernization and industrialization in the archipelago.

Casanova-Burgess uses her personal story and historical, media, socio-political, and literary discussions to analyze the promises and translations of the US American Dream in Puerto Rico.

The Post-Maria Generation

Hurricane Maria had a strong impact, ripping the veil off Puerto Rico’s colonial relationship with the United States—particularly for those living outside of the island, but even for some living there. But that unveiling process had been underway since 2016, with the declaration of the debt crisis, the determination that Puerto Ricans could not declare bankruptcy, and a series of Supreme Court rulings that made it patently clear that the island’s commonwealth status did not offer any measure of sovereignty.

These events had started peeling away Puerto Rico’s facade as a decolonized place. My generation and older people were taught that in the 1950s, we had been decolonized through the creation of the Commonwealth, or Estado Libre Asociado. Although some questioned this notion, and there had always been an anti-colonial movement, the promise of prosperity and the escape valve created by migration had long cloaked the enduring relationships of colonialism.

People talk about how Maria ripped leaves off trees and, metaphorically, off Puerto Rico’s colonial relationship with the US. The storm made our vulnerability and unequal relationship with the United States undeniable.

-Yarimar Bonilla

“Sofá” by Cezanne Cardona

Puerto Rican writer Cézanne Cardona, focusing on lives in the suburbs of Levittown, proposes tensions and interconnections between individual lives without many prospects and the failures of the modernization project in Puerto Rico.

Cardona uses a sofa as an object that carries a working-class family’s history, misadventures, and weight but also signifies the fallout of the suburban “dream” in Puerto Rico. The sofa’s decay symbolizes the failures brought by the colonial relationship between Puerto Rico and the US and the marginalization of Puerto Ricans in the archipelago. However, Cardona narrates individual acts of healing and creative survival.

“I spent months jobless, and the only things that came up were temporary jobs that didn’t pay enough to rent a studio… He told me that things had changed, that people no longer respected the baseball fields that they used them as if  they were garbage dumps… once the election year was over, the municipality didn’t want to renew our contract, and my father was devastated.” (67)

What is the relevance of this section of the story for our discussion today?

Presentation(s):

A

Group 3

Bain,Nada C

Cha,Gabriel

B

Costabile,Jake Robert

Gibbons,Charles

In-class Written Reflection

Analyze the significance and symbolism of the sofa’s journey from one of these interrelated points of view in Cardona’s story. Consider the discussion complemented by the La Brega podcast and Bianca Graulau’s video.

Option One

Explore it from the protagonist’s psychological point of view.

Option Two

Examine it through a political frame.

Option Three

Elaborate it from an economic perspective.

Breakout Room Discussion

Pick one of the questions and have an open discussion, making sure everybody has an opportunity to speak and express ideas.

Analyze The Motorcycle Diaries as a narrative of Latin American identity and solidarity.

Examine Latin America’s socio-economic and political realities in the mid-20th century as depicted in the film.

Discuss the role of travel and witnessing in shaping Ernesto “Che” Guevara’s revolutionary consciousness.

General Question

Use the chatbox to respond:

How can we connect the film with a more extensive history of anticolonial independence and revolutions in the region during the 19th and 20th centuries?

Brewer’s Overview

The Nature and Persistence of Revolutionary Violence in Latin America
Latin American history is marked by frequent revolutions, often accompanied by violence, as a means to achieve political and social change. The wars for independence in the early 19th century exemplify this revolutionary fervor, with widespread political and social upheaval leading to the loss of thousands of lives. Marginalized communities such as Indigenous people and Afro-descendent (free and enslaved) had a complex engagement with the independence wars.

Some fought for the Revolutionary Creoles, some with the Spaniards, and others escaped to remote areas, forming self-sustainable maroon communities far from cities and government centers. The promise of personal freedom was the primary consideration for these historically subjugated groups.

Distinction Between Political and Social Revolutions
Political revolutions aim to transform political systems while maintaining societal structures, often initiated by elites like the Creoles in Latin America. In contrast, social revolutions involve grassroots movements that fundamentally change a nation’s economic and cultural infrastructure, are bloodier, and typically arise when political revolutions fail or become unstable.

The Escalation and Social Impact of Independence Movements
Initially driven by Creoles seeking political control from the Peninsulars, the independence movements quickly evolved into broader social revolutions as marginalized groups, including Indians, Africans, and Castas, rose to demand freedom from systemic cultural, economic, and political oppression. This resulted in widespread destruction and significant societal transformation, highlighting the bottom-up nature of these social revolutions.

The Post-Independence Revolutionary Period

Latin Americans fought hard for their freedom from Iberian control. Between 1810 and 1825, the colonies won victories, set up governments, and divided into new countries. But independence did not fix all of their problems. Some of these areas continued to struggle for years. They discovered that even though they had fought for their freedom from political and economic oppression by Spain and Portugal, they were fettered by many of the same political and financial problems that they had endured under colonialism, such as governmental corruption, racial inequality, and economic exploitation. And so the revolutions continued. Latin American peoples believed that if they continued to fight, they would one day find that elusive freedom they sought (Brewer, 95).

Understanding the Principal Factors of the Cuban Revolution

Instructions:

Re-read Brewer’s discussion on the Cuban Revolution (Pages 96-97). Write down three takeaways.

Who Was Ernesto “Che” Guevara?

Considering the debates and controversies concerning Guevara’s legacy, what does the film try to communicate? How does the film’s tone change as Guevara and Granado detach themselves from their middle to upper-class backdrop?

In-class Written Reflection

Pick one of the following sequences from the film and reflect on the symbolism of it concerning the socio-political realities of the region:

a. the encounter with the mining couple

b. working in the leper colony

c. Guevara’s swim across the river during his birthday.

1. Connect the sequence/theme to broader socio-political issues in Latin America at the time.
2. Discuss how the scene contributes to Guevara’s evolving worldview.
3. Relate the themes in the film to readings from the course.

Reflecting on Revolutionary Latinoamerica Through Music

Residente’s “This Is Not America”

How do you interpret the images of the music video?

For those who speak Spanish how does Residente’s and Ibeyi’s lyrics complement those images?

Key Points on Religion in Latin America, according to Brewer:

Historical Significance of Catholicism: Religion has shaped Latin American culture and society, with Roman Catholicism being predominant since its introduction during the colonial era. Indigenous beliefs and Protestant religions also coexist, reflecting a diverse religious landscape.

Colonial Era Religious Structure: During the colonial period (1492–1825), the Catholic Church’s secular and regular clergy played distinct roles. Secular clergy operated in urban areas, while regular clergy focused on missionary work among indigenous populations, introducing European culture and Christianity.

Church-State Dynamics and Patronato Real: The Catholic Church had significant political power, granted by the Patronato Real (Royal Patronage), which allowed Spanish monarchs to control church appointments and finances. This integration of religion and politics extended to colonial Latin America.

Religious Transformation Post-Independence: After independence (post-1825), Latin America experienced tension between the Catholic Church and newly formed states. While the Church supported independence movements to retain influence, the rise of secularism and other religious movements, such as Protestant denominations, created challenges.

Modern Conflicts and Secularism: In the 19th and 20th centuries, secularism grew, leading to conflicts like Mexico’s Cristero Revolt (1926–1929). These tensions highlighted struggles over the Church’s political and social role, with instances of violence and eventual compromises. Religion has continued to both unify and divide Latin American societies.

Entry Questions on Faith in Blackness

Who are Afro-Latines?

What can we learn from the lived experiences of Afro-Latines and their relationship to their spiritual practices?

The Documentary

Faith in Blackness: An Exploration of AfroLatine Spirituality is a short-form documentary highlighting the lived experiences of AfroLatines of different faith traditions by sharing their stories and how their Blackness plays a role in their spirituality and vice versa.

Reclaiming Black and Afro-Latine Spiritualities

The director and the producer emphasize the importance of reclaiming spirituality through an Afro-Latine lens, addressing the constraints and anti-Blackness embedded in dominant religious traditions. The documentary explores how embracing Blackness and intersectional identities can redefine spiritual practices and foster inclusivity.

“My lived experiences as a Black man, an Afro-Latino, often felt constrained by the religion that sought to free me. Like the people in this film, I discovered that embracing my Blackness connected me to all people whose healing journeys redefine their spiritualities and faith traditions.”

-Charles Reynoso, Director

Decolonizing Faith and Broadening Perspectives

The filmmakers and contributors advocate for decolonizing spirituality by challenging dominant cultural depictions of God, particularly the white male image. They highlight the transformative power of Afro-Latine spiritual perspectives in fostering a more holistic and justice-rooted faith.

“An understanding of God that hails from AfroLatines can also help us have a more holistic understanding of God. Most of our images of God make us think of God as a white male figure. This idea becomes so ingrained that to imagine God as a person of color can be viewed as a kind of heresy. When we embrace new perspectives, we break the habit of viewing God through the lens of the dominant culture, and we become more prepared for a fuller spirituality that is elastic and affirms our Black-lived experiences.”

-Josue Perea, Producer

Dynamic and Inclusive Spiritual Narratives

Through personal journeys, interviews, and poetic storytelling, the documentary portrays Black Latine individuals reshaping their faith traditions to include their whole selves. This work aims to inspire others to explore dynamic spiritualities grounded in justice, ancestral memory, and liberation.

In-class written reflections

Option One

.How does the documentary contest whiteness within spiritual practices while reinforcing the image of God within Afro-Latines?

Option Two 

.In class, we explored connections between African rituals, performances, and freedom from colonial oppression. Discuss the relationship between Afro-Latine spirituality and liberation as presented by the documentary? 

Option Three

.The documentary emphasizes the dispersion and regeneration of the African diaspora in the Americas over US-centric conceptions of Blackness. Thinking of this, expand on the significance of Yvette Modestin’s phrase, “We, people in Latin America and the Caribbean, the largest population of Afro-descendants, are walking around not knowing we are Black?”

Option Four

.The question of racial identification is central to the film. It is presented as a duality between self-consciousness and labeling from the outside. Elaborate on this dynamic and how identification with Blackness can become a grounding source.

Conclusion

Within the Afro-Latine person, there is a hope to one day be centered in spaces where they have been excluded, to be celebrated, and to be appropriately credited. Afro-Latine spirituality is anchored on a decentralization of power forged by the memory of our ancestors. It is dynamic, service-oriented, and rooted in social justice and communal liberation. Afro-Latine spirituality is embodied.

Entry Questions

.Describe the condition in which Africans traveled from Africa to the Americas. (Brewer, 74)

.What is the connection between the annihilation of Indian populations and the capture and forced labor imposed on Africans in the Caribbean and Latin America? (Brewer, 75)

.Discuss the development of the plantation (forced labor camps) economy in the Americas (Brewer, 75-76)

Quilombos: a Historical Context

Runaway slaves were called cimarrones, and when enough cimarrones could gather together in one place in Brazil’s interior wilderness, they sometimes established their own communities called quilombos. A quilombo was simply a settlement comprised of runaway Africans, where they set up African-style “governments” and practiced African-based religions. They often sent out marauding parties to invade nearby Brazilian towns and villages, stole from travelers, freed other slaves, and, on rare occasions, declared war on Portuguese settlements. And like in Africa, there is evidence that slavery was actually practiced in quilombos, although not in the same manner as was practiced by the Portuguese on the coasts. African slavery inside quilombos was usually never perpetual or hereditary, and slaves were not considered property.

The most famous quilombo in Brazil was in Pernambuco. This quilombo was named Palmares. It was formed around 1600 when the Dutch invaded the northern Brazilian coastline and caused such an uproar that hundreds of slaves were able to escape into the interior while their masters were occupied with repelling the Dutch. By the end of the 1600s, Palmares had a population of around 30,000 spread throughout several associated communities. They worked as farmers, artisans, and warriors and established their own government. The most famous leader of Palmares was a man named Ganga Zumba, a runaway slave who was supposedly elected to his position through a quasi-democratic election process. (Brewer, 78-79)

Palmares existed for nearly a century before the Brazilian military’s final conquest in 1695. Wealthy plantation owners in Pernambuco and the city of Recife funded the military expeditions that were sent out to exterminate the community of runaway slaves. After nearly 20 attempts, the Portuguese were finally successful in capturing a later leader of Palmares named Zumbi and beheading him in 1695. But even after the demise of Palmares, slaves continued to run away and set up new smaller quilombos where they hoped to avoid attracting as much attention. (Brewer, 79)

Why is preserving and learning about maroon practices and quilombos in Brazil and the Americas vital? Use the chatbox to respond.

Keywords

Euromodernity is the multiple structures (political, social, racial, legal, religious, economical, philosophical, educational, discursive, etc.) established in Europe, especially after 1492, and brought to the Americas via conquest (war) and colonialism.

Marronage consists of flight from the plantation and establishing a new society that was a product of the fugitives’ syncretic social and political imagination. But it also refers to flight from oppressive institutions through permanent institutional reconfiguration (revolutions) as well as to an existential state of Being outside of colonial structures (coloniality.) (2)

Presentations:

A

Biba,Sonilda

Bodden,Phashely

Borosan,Viktoria

B

Jimenez Ortiz,Diana

Kirchner,Sean Xiao

Group Question

Marronage, as practiced by those residing in Palmares, was a flight from the Euromodern world to affirm another world, in addition to flight as self-preservation from premature death in bondage.

Using examples from the film Quilombo, discuss how the maroons created a world outside the Portuguese colonial world. Consider the political, cultural, ecological, gender, and social practices portrayed in the film.

How does the maroon society differ from the colonial society?

Maroon Logics as Ecological Thought and Practice 

They reject the idea that individualism is the best way to live, which is a key flaw in modern European thinking. Instead, maroon thinking emphasizes the importance of the community because survival depends on everyone working together.

Community isn’t just about people helping each other—it includes all living things. People are born into specific places and ecosystems where plants, animals, and humans rely on each other. When survival is threatened, it becomes clear that every living thing is part of the community.

How does the film demonstrate maroon logic as an ecological practice?

In-class written reflection

Option One

Enslaved people, whose fundamental rights were taken away by slavery, didn’t just reject slavery. They first stood up for their own humanity, and by doing that, they also rejected the system that tried to dehumanize them.

In which ways does the film Quilombo show maroons’ practices as an affirmation of their humanity? Refer to scenes, songs, choreographies, or ideas the film presents.

Option Two

Freedom for enslaved people meant fighting to live and staying true to their way of life despite challenging circumstances. African-descended enslaved people teamed up with Indigenous groups, working together to create new traditions and systems. This blending happened because both groups were struggling to survive under extreme threats.

How does the film Quilombo illustrate this definition? Refer to scenes, songs, choreographies, or ideas the film presents.

Option Three

Freedom can mean choosing to live in a way that rejects outside ideas forced on you and instead values your own culture and identity. Marronage is about escaping European ideas of modern life. It focuses on putting the community first instead of the individual because survival depends on working together.

Discuss how, in Quilombo, the community becomes a central character that works towards a free space separated from the colonial government. Refer to scenes, songs, choreographies, or ideas the film presents.

Conclusion

African slavery in the New World was a terrible period in the history of the hemisphere. African peoples were ripped from their homes, families, and ways of life, only to be sent across an ocean and into a harsh life of servitude, punishment, and misery. The African slave trade increased in importance and economic opportunity during the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. In the early 1500s, when the slave trade was just beginning to reach the New World, Africans comprised less than 5 percent of all trade across the Atlantic Ocean. But by the early 1800s, slavery had risen to nearly 30 percent of all Atlantic trade. The results for countries in the Caribbean and South America are still evident today (Brewer, 79).

Entry Question

Beyond the “three gs” of la conquista española presented by Khan Academy, what other intentions and gains the conquistadores had?

Use the chatbox to answer.

Discourse on Colonialism

Poet, playwright, political theorist, and politician Aimé Césaire was born June 26, 1913, in Basse-Pointe, Martinique, in the French Caribbean.

He is the author of Discourse on Colonialism (Monthly Review Press, 1950), a book of essays that has become a classic text of Francophone political literature and helped establish the literary and ideological movement  of Negritude, a term Césaire explains come from the recognition that:

“We lived in an atmosphere of rejection, and we developed an inferiority complex. I have always thought that the black man was searching for his identity. And it has seemed to me that if what we want is to establish this identity, then we must have a concrete consciousness of what we are- that is,  of the first fact of our lives: that we are black; that we were black and have a history, a history  that contains certain cultural elements of great value; and that Negroes were not, as you put it, born yesterday, because there have been beautiful and important black civilizations.”

-Aimé Césaire, AN INTERVIEW WITH AIME CESAIRE

Recommended Video: Robin D. G. Kelley on Aimé Césaire 

Presentations:

A

Azon Cabrera,Hamilton Gabriel

John,Nashauna

Kelly,Yshara

B

Reyes,Tomas

Torres,Fatima Licet

What are the central ideas of this writer, thinker, or artist?

Main argument: Europe is a “decadent,” “stricken,” “dying” civilization and that is “morally, spiritually indefensible.” (31-32)

“To agree on what it is not [colonialism]: neither evangelization, nor a philanthropic enterprise, nor a desire to push back the frontiers of ignorance, disease, and tyranny, nor a project undertaken for the greater glory of God, nor an attempt to extend the rule of law. “

Analyze one specific section by your chosen author that best communicates what you identified in the question above.

“I find that hypocrisy is of recent date; that neither Cortez discovering Mexico from the top of the great teocalli, nor Pizzaro before Cuzco (much less Marco Polo before Cambuluc), claims that he is the harbinger of a superior order; that they kill; that they plunder; that they have helmets, lances, cupidities; that the slavering apologists came later; that the chief culprit in this domain is Christian pedantry, which laid down the dishonest equations Christianity = civilization, paganism = savagery, from which there could I not but ensue abominable colonialist and racist consequences, whose victims were to be the Indians, the Yellow peoples, and the Negroes.”

Césaire distinguishes two historical stages. One is about showing military power (la conquista), which is unapologetically violent and sadistic. The second overlapped stage, colonization, or the establishment of colonial society, requires the imposition of ideology (intellectual production, reasoning, equations, apologies, laws, codes) and the eradication of native cultures and languages and, eventually, those of the enslaved.

Two examples are the encomienda and the caste systems (see video 5:55).

Critical question:

Rejecting the equation colonialism/Christianity = civilization, Césaire proposes a new equation that says “colonization = thingification” (42). What do you understand by that? Can you think of contemporary forms of colonization?

Use the chatbox to answer.

Conclusion 

“Between colonizer and colonized, there is room only for forced labor, intimidation, pressure, the police, taxation, theft, rape, compulsory crops, contempt, mistrust, arrogance, self-complacency, swinishness, brainless elites, degraded masses.

No human contact, but relations of domination and submission which turn the colonizing man into a classroom monitor, an army sergeant, a prison guard, a slave driver, and the indigenous man into an instrument of production.” (42)

Breakout Rooms Discussions

How do the Taino rebellions of the early 1500s and the Cochabamba water wars of the early 2000s, as represented by Even the Rain, resemble each other? Under the global climate crisis, is water the new gold?

Pick a leader to take notes and report back.

Cochabamba Water War- Historical Context

1. Privatization and Price Hikes: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) promoted the privatization of state-owned industries in Bolivia, including Cochabamba’s water company, SEMAPA. This led to significant water price increases and inadequate government subsidies under World Bank recommendations.
2. Corporate Mismanagement: Aguas del Tunari, owned by US-based Bechtel, further raised water prices, exacerbating economic challenges for citizens, although Bechtel denied allegations of excessive price hikes or wrongdoing.
3. Policy Failure and Backlash: The privatization and market-driven reforms failed to reduce poverty, culminating in the “Water War” and the termination of Bechtel’s water supply contracts in Cochabamba by 2005.

In-class written reflection

Even the Rain

Discussing at least two scenes, answer one of these questions:

Option One

.How does the film Even the Rain showcase the hypocrisy and tyranny of colonialism?

Option Two

How does the film crew WITHIN the film reproduce the same colonial mentalities and practices they represent in their Christopher Columbus movie?

Option Three

How does the contemporary issue of access to water connect to the Taino people’s resistance in the Caribbean?

Discourse On Colonialism

Option One

.Césaire argues that colonization works to decivilize and brutalize the colonizer. He says, “a poison has been distilled into the veins of Europe and, slowly but surely, the continent proceeds towards savagery.” Explain. (Pages 35-36)

.Césaire holds that “nobody colonizes innocently.” Discuss what he means by that. (Page 39)

Option Two

.Césaire proposes that colonization is based and justified on contempt for the native and that it changes the colonizer. Amplify. (Page 41)

.What are the effects of colonization on the colonized? (Page 43)

Analysis of Sources

What are the main arguments or themes presented by Stewart Brewer in his chapter “Pre-Colombian Cultures”?

Native cultures in Latin America were shaped by three major empires: the Aztecs, Inca, and Maya. These empires controlled vast geographical areas through intertribal warfare and displays of extreme bloodied power. The Aztec and Inca empires were centralized, with totalitarian leaders embodying political, religious, and military authority. In contrast, the Maya operated through a network of interconnected leaders and distributed power.

All three empires relied on taxation and human sacrifices to control artisans and food producers. While human sacrifices were framed as religious acts, they also served as instruments of domination and control, especially in the case of the Aztecs.

The video expands on the chapter, showing us the decline of the Incas. The video shows how the Spanish Empire emerged as a destructive enemy, leveraging its imperial tools (arms) to conquer and subjugate this civilization. Genocide was justified through the guise of a “holy war,” resulting in the widespread destruction of indigenous cultures, knowledge systems, and histories, which were systematically demonized and erased.

How does the structure or organization of the piece contribute to Brewer’s conceptual goals?

Brewer divides his general text into several interconnected sections, providing a general history of native cultures in the Americas and comparing three distinct indigenous empires. The third part, which we will not focus on, examines two films that engage with these topics. These subsections let readers focus on specific themes or civilizations and digest a complex history in concise prose.

Select a text section that best illustrates the central ideas. How does this section communicate those ideas effectively?

The Inca emperor – whose title was simply The Inca – was a political and religious ruler and quasi deity. Below the emperor was a group of territorial rulers and nobles who governed various districts within the empire.

The bulk of the population of the Inca Empire was made up of lower-class peasantry who were organized into clans called ayllu. Within an ayllu, the people were responsible for the taxes that were paid to the empire. But the tax in the Inca system was not a monetary or even commodity-based tax. Rather, the Inca were taxed in a system of labor-tax called mita.

In each community a plot of ground was set aside for the political/religious leaders of the empire at various levels of political and religious power. The people in the ayllu would work this special plot of ground right along with their own land. Then, when the land was harvested, the produce from the government’s plot of land was sent up to the governors and regional leaders and religious figures in order to sustain them in their positions. The rest of the produce from a clan’s land was used by the clan as needed. Other forms of mita tax included military service for males, and cloth production for females (Brewer, 21-22).

How does your analysis of this source connect to or build upon Pachamama?

Pachamama sheds light on one of these agricultural villages or ayllu. The animated film begins with the harvest and its division among their goddess, the empire, and themselves. Soon, we see how the imperial representative exploits (tax) la mita, disregarding the villagers’ subsistence and spiritual practices. Eventually, the two young protagonists confront the Inca ruler at the heart of the empire. The movie portrays him as a vanity-driven despot incapable of appreciating or listening to others.

In-class written reflection

Instructions:

Pick one or two overlapping questions to reflect on the animated film. I will not consider AI-generated responses (which are easy to identify). I am not interested in “perfect” or “standard” prose (a racist idea) but in how you practice your critical thinking skills (essential to any field event, even those connected to or relying on AI).

Based on the animated movie, how would you define the spiritual and ecological concept of Pachamama?

How does the belief in Pachamama tell us about the native communities of the Andean region? What is the role of spirituality in their agricultural and daily practices?

To what extent did the imperial Incas and Spaniards resemble? Why do they reject Pachamama?

What is the significance of the Tepulpai’s journey from feather stealer to young shaman (spiritual leader)? What does he learn along the way? How does his relationship with Pachamama change?

Pachamama is the highest divinity of the Andean people. She is concerned with fertility, feminine energies, generosity, ripening crops, and providing protection. Pachamama is the goddess who protects all material goods and rules over the spiritual universe. She symbolizes the human environment in every aspect, so those who believe in her will maintain a balanced, reciprocal relationship.

Pachamama is a word in Quechua and Aymara that means earth, cosmos, universe, time, and space.

The concept of Pachamama is directly related to agricultural wealth since the indigenous peoples’ economy is based on agricultural production. However, some changes have occurred as the Catholic faith has become more prevalent. In some ceremonies, the Pachamama is worshipped by the Virgin Mary.

I. Chain Reaction: Introducing ourselves

Instructions:

Pick one or two of the following questions:

.Share one very boring thing and one exciting that happened to you during the holidays.

.Did you migrate or have ancestry in Latin America and/or the Caribbean? Where? Have you been able to return? How was that experience?

.If you could visit any place in Latin America and the Caribbean this year, where would you go and why?

.Do you usually watch movies or media from Latin America and/or the Caribbean? What is something you liked recently?

.What’s one thing you hope to learn or achieve in this course?

II. Group Agreements

In the chat box, write a community agreement or an idea you would like us to follow during our time together.

III. Syllabus Discussion

Group Activity

Each group will examine a specific item from the syllabus to locate and unpack it. The group will then report their findings to the class.

• Course goals and objectives
• Grading breakdown + key assignments or projects x2
• Policies on attendance, participation, and late submissions
• Sources listed

Extensive Discussion

What part of the syllabus surprised you the most?

How do the course objectives align with your personal goals for this class?

Is there anything you feel needs clarification?

Did you notice resources in the syllabus that could help you succeed in the course?

Is there anything you’d like to suggest or discuss further?