In many forms of literature, numerous themes are often referenced in the texts and many tales would have a similar interpretation and representation of these themes. One such theme that has been utilized by many ancient literary texts is the idea of mortality. This theme often associates with the idea that the ultimate fate of all living beings is death. In literary texts such as Homer’s The Iliad and the ancient Mesopotamian poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the theme of mortality is present with a similar style of portrayal.

The theme of mortality can also be seen through certain characters’ reactions towards the news of death towards the characters close to them. In the Iliad, this can be seen through the death of Patroclus. When Achilles received the news of the death of his close friend, Achilles felt severe grief and depression. This scene is illustrated in the painting from George Dawe (1803), as seen above. Achilles was mortified and rejects the consolation of his mother and servants. He began to throw “fistfuls of sunburnt dust / And poured it on his head, fouling / His beautiful face.” (The Iliad 284) Gilgamesh went through a similar experience after seeing Enkidu’s death, where he began to tear and hurl “the locks of his hair, / Ripping off and throwing away his fine clothes like something foul.” (The Epic of Gilgamesh 133) In both of these stories, the main protagonist had a strong reaction towards death and began to destroy their own appearance by removing and ruining the features that make them beautiful. This can be interpreted as a metaphor of where the hero is trying to commit suicide to be with their lost friend. The act of damaging their physical appearance is an analogy of destroying their humanity and committing suicide. By transforming their appearance into something darker, they begin to embrace death. This is further supported by Achilles, who told his mother, Thetis, that he would be satisfied with dying against Hector, due his failure to protect Patroclus and the other men defeated by Hector. (The Iliad 286) The characters’ reaction to the death of their comrades serves as a reminder that despite their divine nature, they are not immune to death.

In response to death, Achilles chose to react with rage and a desire for vengeance, breaking away from his pacifist attitude from the beginning of the story. Earlier in the story, Achilles refused to return to the battlefield, despite being offered gifts that Nestor described to be “beyond reproach”. (The Iliad 261) Achilles was also conscious of his mortality at that moment, where he states that if he returns to the battle, he will die but will be immortalized with the military honor and glory. If he chooses to return home, he will not receive the glory that he wishes but he will escape death. (The Iliad 266) He was adamant in his position as a bystander and chooses not to return “Until Priam’s illustrious son Hector / Comes to the Myrmidons’ ships and huts / Killing Greeks as he goes and torching the fleet” (The Iliad 271), but still chose to return after only learning of Patroclus’ death. As indicated by the painting from Charles-Antoine Coypel (1797), Achilles is fueled with determination without showing any hesitation or concern for his safety. The knowledge of death has fueled his spirit to take action.

Achilles was able to regain his resolve to fight without while wagering his life, but Gilgamesh, however, chooses to delay his death and run away from the problem. In contrast to Achilles, Gilgamesh’s strong personality began to deteriorate after Enkidu’s death. When Gilgamesh encountered the scorpion monsters in Tablet IX, “He covered his face” when he “saw their fearsomeness and terror”. (The Epic of Gilgamesh 135) This is a notable difference to his reaction towards Humbaba, where he stated that “Humbaba’s features have grown more grotesque, / We strode up like heroes to vanquish him.” (The Epic of Gilgamesh 121) Against Humbaba, Gilgamesh reacted to its appearance but still had the motivation to kill it, whereas he had to “took hold of himself” (The Epic of Gilgamesh 135) in order to just approach the scorpion monsters. The knowledge of death has paralyzed his spirit, prompting him to take caution.

The Iliad and the Epic of Gilgamesh are two ancient poems that focused on the theme of mortality and utilizes it to remind both the characters and the audience of their own mortality. One instance of the theme being shown in the stories is through the reactions of the main protagonists after the death of their close friend. Both Achilles and Gilgamesh chosen to ruin their appearances with dirt and dust, which is a strong resemblance to the act of destroying their humanity and life. The use of dirt also closely resemble the starting act of burying oneself into the ground, a procedure used primarily for corpses. After their emotional reaction to the deaths, their personality began to change. Achilles chooses to stop his passiveness, but Gilgamesh chooses to take caution as he tries to escape his mortality. This contrast shows the two paths that humans can take when they are confronted with the possibility of death, where they can either act without regrets or act with fear. Through the actions shown in the Iliad and the Epic of Gilgamesh, the theme of mortality is clearly shown, stressing the importance of being conscious of one’s mortality and how one should act with that knowledge.

Works Cited

Puchner, Martin, ed. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 3rd. Vol. A. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2012. Print.

“The Epic of Gilgamesh.” Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. Trans. Benjamin R. Foster. 3rd. Vol. A. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2012. 99-151. Print.

“The Iliad.” Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. Trans. Stanley Lombardo. 3rd. Vol. A. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2012. 230-331. Print.

One of the most common themes of literature is male comradeship.  Male comradeship is the relationship between male characters who share one’s interests, activities and gaining the trust of one another.  In the Epic of Gilgamesh and Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the theme is depicted through each story by two primary male characters. These great works illustrate comradery by depicting the heart of their stories and by conveying multiple expressions of loyalty, trust, as well as brotherly love.

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the two primary characters who share a male comradery are Gilgamesh and Enkidu.  Gilgamesh is the king of Uruk, who was the strongest of men, “Two-thirds of him was divine, one-third of him was human!” (Tablet I).  Enkidu is the companion who was raised in the jungle by animals.  Both were very similar in terms of their physical characteristics such as height and physical strength.  The moment they encountered each other, they aspired to become rivals.  The pair wrestled and fought to respect one another’s strength. At the end of the battle, “They kissed each other and made friends”, they saw that they could be no winner and they became comrades (Tablet II). The relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu is much more impactful on Gilgamesh rather than Enkidu.  Even though Enkidu is the uncivilized one who was trying to learn how mankind lives in a new environment with other humans rather than being in a jungle with animals.   Before meeting his comrade, Enkidu, he was very unstable, almost uncontrollable. “Day and night he would rampage fiercely.” (Tablet I).  Gilgamesh comes to understand and learn what it means to be mortal.  This is depicted when they both sought out to defeat Humbaba, the forest orge and Bull of Heaven.  After both battles, both Gilgamesh and Enkdu realized that they were mortals. Gilgamesh and Enkidu were disrespectful towards Ishtar the goddess by means of childish acts. In addition, they defied Enlil, the god of Earth, Wind and Air, by killing his servant Humbaba.  Enkidu was punished by death.

Enkidu’s death stunned Gilgamesh.  “Tearing out and hurling away the locks of his hair, Ripping off and throwing away his fine clothes like something foul” (Tablet VIII).  He ripped his clothes and hair off. Gilgamesh lamented to his friend.  The beginning of the weeping is filled with imagery of animals and nature.  For example,  “Onagers raised you on their milk, And the wild beasts taught you all the grazing places.” This quote expresses the life of Enkidu before meeting Gilgamesh.  The lamentation is almost like a timeline from beginning to end.  As the lamentation progresses, the imagery invokes the life of living in Uruk.  For instance, “May the shepherd and herdsman weep for you, Who held the milk and the buttermilk to your mouth” (Tablet VIII. Volume A pg 133). The Epic of Gilgamesh suggests that death is inescapable.  The idea of death to Gilgamesh is almost nonexistent before Enkidu’s death.  When they were together, the fear of death was not present because they distracted each other from it.  “Their actions influenced one another into believing that they were completely immortal.  The dynamic of male comradery between these two characters ultimately leads to one character’s death and another’s triumph.

In Hamlet, the male comrades are Hamlet and Horatio.  Hamlet is the main protagonist of this tragedy.  He is the cruel and cynical Prince of Denmark.  Horatio is Hamlet’s trusted friend from the university they attend.  But how does Horatio become the trusted friend of the Prince of Denmark.  In the tragedy of Hamlet, Horatio’s role in the play is minor.  However, his role to the character development of Hamlet is key and crucial part.  Horatio serves two purposes to Hamlet.  The first being the obvious which is being his closest companion.  They share deep conversations that allow the audience to have an insight into Hamlet’s true feelings.  These deep conversations can include Hamlet’s soliloquies where Hamlet expresses his thinking to the audience.  The second is being the outside spectator to the madness for both the audience and to Hamlet.  When Horatio accepted the Ghost’s existence during the first scene of Act I, it is recognized that Hamlet has seen the ghost King of Denmark.  If Horatio wasn’t there, Hamlet’s sanity and judgment would be in doubt throughout the story.

At the end of the tragedy of Hamlet, it is the main protagonist that dies unlike the Epic of Gilgamesh where Enkidu died and not Gilgamesh.  When Hamlet lies dying, Horatio shows his love for his dying friend by preparing himself to commit suicide.  However, Horatio states at the end of the tragedy, “Of that I shall have also cause to speak, And from his mouth whose voice will draw on more” which helps decides Horatio to live in order to tell Hamlet’s story (Act V, scene II. Volume C pg 751).  They both share death scenes where one character is holding another in their arms.

The theme of comradeship is thoroughly expressed throughout these two works of literature.  Overall, the development within these characters are highly effected by another character with common interests.  Today, male comradeship is often expressed as “bromance” which is brotherly love.

Literature is a perfect reflection of the society during the time. By looking at a literature work we can see how a society structures and the roles of people within that society. Throughout many centuries, there is an image that is hardly missed in literature work: the image of woman. They have been described in many different ways and roles: sometimes, they are the major (main character) of the story but sometimes, they are just the minor. They are the origin, inspiration of evolution who convey learning and wisdom. Not only so, they have the power to influence and change the history. Moreover, they are always given a very sacred duty which is being a great mother. In this blog, we will be examining the roles of women through two great old texts: The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Hebrew Bible from Genesis.

From the beginning of this world, woman was born to give a very sacred duty which is to bear her child.  This role was obviously mentioned in The Hebrew Bible – Genesis 4 when the God curses Woman

“I will terribly sharpen your birth pangs,
in pain shall you bear children” Gen.4.

Not only in this current society but also from the old texts, women have been described as a very great mother.

“In Sumerian mythology, Ninsun or Ninsuna (“lady wild cow”) is a goddess, best known as the mother of the legendary hero Gilgamesh, and as the tutelary goddess of Gudea of Lagash.” Wikipedia

The first mother that we should talk about is Ninsun. Ninsun presents in the story as Gilgamesh’s mother and she is a very supportive mother which reveals in the way she watches out for and takes care of her son. She is extremely devoted to her son and always supports him through his journeys. We can clearly see this when she tried to put in a good word for her son in front of Shamash before Gilgamesh and Endiku’s quest to slay Humbaba (Tablet III). Even when it saddens Ninsun that Gilgamesh is taking on the quest to slay Humbaba, she still goes to ask Shamash for help which then contributes to Gilgamesh’s winning. So, without the care of loving mother, Ninsun, Humbaba could not have been slayed. She is described as a very caring and responsive mother.

Another woman that was also described as a very devoted mother is Rebekah – mom to Jacob and Esau (Gen.27). Even she seems to be unfair to Esau, she turns out to be a very fair mother in balancing support for her children. While Esau gets his father’s favorite, Rebekah makes it fair to Jacob by her constant support. With the love of a mother, she totally devoted to her child – Jacob by guiding him what he should do to get his father blessing before he dies. She helps Jacob to cook Isaac’s favorite meal which eventually helps Jacob get his father trust. Those two mothers are the wonderful mother who always think of their children. Because of their children, they can do everything which even hurts them. They show us how the duty of being a great mother deeply stays in a woman’s soul which never disappears throughout the time.

“Jacob and Rebekah (illustration from a Bible card published 1906 by the Providence Lithograph Company)”

Not only being a great mother, women in those old texts was also described as the one who conveys learning and wisdom. In fact, these old texts all indicate this role of woman. The very important detail we should notice which indicates this women’s role in The Hebrew Bible is when Eva was the one who ate the fruit from the tree of knowledge first. (Gen.4). This moment shows an idea: even before getting knowledge, woman is the one who is meant to keep and convey learning and knowledge. Eva’s action of pursuing Adam to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge can be seen as action of conveying knowledge, even they eventually get punished from the God.

In the Epic Of Gilgamesh, Shamhat should be a typical example. She is sent to tame the wild-man Enkidu and bring him back to human society. Before taking about what she had done, let’s image what if she didn’t exist, what should have changed? Enkidu is an important character, who will together with King Gilgamesh go through future adventures and he is also the one causes Gilgamesh to find the immortality of life. When recognizing how important Enkidu is, we have to admit that the one who brought him back from the nature, gave him the chance to meet Gilgamesh, plays a more important role – she is Shamhat.

“The Last Quest of Gilgamesh. © 1995 Ludmila Zeman, published by Tundra Books of Northern New York.

What did she do? She went out into wilderness where she “stripped off her robe and lay there naked [….].For seven days, Enkidu made love with her”. In fact, the sex act leads Enkidu into masculine manhood and signals a break with the uncivilized. She fed him a human meal and clothes him. What she had done is she educates him, conveys learning to wake humanity inside Enkidu up. Her mission is to bring him back to human-kind and she actually wants him to learn “how to live”.

The next woman in The Epic of Gilgamesh who also conveys the wisdom of life is the tavern-keeper, Siduri who lives at the end of the earth. She just appears in a short period but she plays a significant role in changing the whole story’s wisdom. She is the one who untie the knot of the story. Her image in the story represents wisdom and she actually appears as a great educator not only to Gilgamesh but also to the reader. After the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh realizes the limitation of human-kind and he looks for a means of immortality. He met Siduri and raises his question about the immortality of life. Shiduri tells him

“Siduri Sabitu (the tavern keeper)”

“Let your stomach be full,
always be happy, night and day,
make every day a delight,
night and day play and dance.
Your clothes should be clean,
your head should be washed,
you should be bathe in water.
Look proudly on the little one holding your hand.
Let your mate be always blissful in your lions.
This, then, is the work of mankind.” (Tablet X).

It should be the intention of the author when writing this text. How can a woman can understand this simply meaning of life while a great King like Gilgamesh who has to go through many challenges in order to find it? She encourages him to put away his grief and fully enjoy life because the eternal life that he is seeking for is unrealistic. That is a really beautiful work of author in choosing a woman as an image of wisdom.   

There is one thing for sure that we can not live in this world without women. According to the two old texts – the Epic of Gilgamesh and The Hebrew Bible, we can see how important women are in those old time. They are the origin, inspiration of evolution who convey learning and wisdom. Not only so, they are always given a very sacred duty which is being a great mother.

In the Epic of Gilgamesh and The Iliad, there can be many comparisons seen with the protagonists of each poem.  In the Epic of Gilgamesh, there is the strongest war hero, Gilgamesh who is two-thirds god and one-third human.  In The Iliad, there is Achilles, who is the most powerful warrior in the Achaean army.  Both warriors go through obstacles in there journeys, and the way each protagonist handles each situation makes them very similar.  Both Gilgamesh and Achilles don’t use their power to the greatest advantage, they have very strong relationships with their mothers,  and the fear of death.

Gilgamesh was not a regular war hero.  Gilgamesh was king of Uruk, and he was two-thirds god and one-third mortal. There are many sections in the text that describe Gilgamesh as a hero.  This is ironic because Gilgamesh having all the power and blessing’s of being two-thirds divine, he is not able to become the man he is set out to be, and satisfy his parents. An example of his blessing can be found, in Tablet I line 49 it states “Gilgamesh was singled out from the day of his birth, Two-thirds of him was divine, one-third human! The Lady of Birth drew his body’s image, The God of Wisdom brought his stature to perfection.” Achilles was also not a regular hero.  Achilles had superhuman strength but also had problems through the epic dealing with his own pride.  Achilles fights to prove he is the best, but his characteristic flaws and attitude hurt his identity in his city.  An example of this can be seen in Book 1, lines 131-133 reading “You greedy glory-hound, the magnanimous Greeks Are going to get another prize for you? Do you think we have some kind of stockpile in reserve?”  In this passage, the warrior Achilles is arguing with Agamemnon about Agamemnon wanting Achilles’ war prize, and because his pride is too high, a nasty side comes out of him, hurting his heroic image in the poem.

Both of these characters have a massive amount of strength and power, which also comes with an amount of responsibility.  Both characters have a relationship with their mothers, but seem to have no significant other.  In book XXIV lines 138-142, Achilles mother, Thetis, tells her son “My son, how long will you let this grief Eat at your heart, mindless of food and rest?  It would be good to make love to a woman.  It hurts me to say it, but you will not live Much longer.  Death and doom are besides you.”  This was hard for Thetis to tell her son, but it was needed for Achilles to realize and useful for himself.  This mother-son relationship can also be seen in in Gilgamesh. One example of Ninsun, Gilgamesh’s mother, helping her son is when she puts in a good word to the sun-god to help out Gilgamesh in a battle he would soon face. Another common theme that both Gilgamesh and Achilles have is the fear in death.  In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh has a conversation with elders to gain experience, and once they had spoken there knowledge, Gilgamesh asked himself, “I am afraid to die”? (Tablet III, Line 233)  Throughout the entire epic, he is concerned with immortality, but he is faced with a decision to die as hero or a coward.

In conclusion, both protagonists Gilgamesh and Achilles have a common theme.  Gilgamesh is born with a super amount of power, and is raised by a goddess mother, and a mortal man.  Achilles is also blessed with super strength, is raised by a sea nymph and has a special relationship with the gods.  Each protagonist also share a strong connection with their mothers.  Lastly, each protagonist is scared to face there day of death.  Through time and battle, each character realize their day will come one day, and they have to accept the fact, and man up in the situation.

What immediately comes up in your mind, when one hears the word “power?” It might remind you a great variety of people ranging from ancient mythology such as Achilles and Hector from The Trojan War and prominent political figures like President Barack Obama. As you would probably realize, despite the fact that these people live in different eras, geographic locations, and conditions, they have one thing in common—they are all male. Thus, it is understandable that people tend to spontaneously associate the word “power” with men. However, according to the definition given by Merriam-Webster Dictionary, “power” simply means “a person that has a lot of control and influences over other people.” There is nothing in the dictionary that indicates power is limited by gender. In fact, plenty of multipliable evidence within literary devices proved that the word “power” could be applied to women as well. The Book of the City of Ladies and Iliad are the two literary works that prove women could have powers that may be comparable to men or even exceeding men in terms of physical power, creation power, power of brilliance, and the indirect power.

An Image of the Mighty Queen Panthesilea Source:http://www.talesbeyondbelief.com/

Three prominent Amazonian figures in the Book of the City of Ladies show physical power is not a privilege possession of men. Two of the closest relatives of Queen Orithyia, Menalippe and Hippolyta, are often defined as the “finest” and “most valiant of all the Amazons,” because they have shown their physical strength through the battle with Greek society. These two strong women fought against the mighty hero Hercules and the valiant king of Athens. Contradictory to what most people would think, Hercules and Theseus were brought down from their horses by these two women. Menalippe and Hippolyta brought down two of the most valiant knights who ever lived, with their individual unbelievable physical strengths. Moving to Queen Penthesilea, who inherited the great physical strengths, from her mother Orithyia, sought revenge against the Greeks for the death of Hector. Queen Panthesilea struck down and almost killed Achilles’s son, Pyrrhus. The Queen Penthesilea had physically defeated Pyrrhus, who is a very fine soldier, by using her own strength. Yet the power of women is not just contingent upon their physical strength only; it is far deeper than that concept.

The Ancient Latin Alphabet Invented by Carmentis Source: www.thebookmarkshop.com

There are several women in The Book of the City of Ladies who are respected and worshipped by the people for their power of creation. Carmentis, an extraordinarily intelligent and gifted daughter of the King of Arcadia, is particularly known for her power to create innovative things. To escape from frequent upheavals, Carmentis along with other people, left their native land and settled in Mount Palatine, where she invented her own set of letters. In order to show that her nation was superior to others, she invented the Latin alphabet, rules for constructing words, vowels, and bases of grammar to differentiate her country from alphabetical letters used by other nations. Another example is Minerva, an intelligent woman known for her power to create things. She was the one who invented numbers and developed ways of using these numbers for various purposes such as counting and quick calculations. In addition, she created many arts and techniques including the art of making wool and cloth. She is the one who came up with the idea of shearing sheep and the process of turning wools into the fine fabric that’s needed to make clothing. Besides this, she also invented the art of building carts and chariots, the art of forging armor and weapons for knights in the battle.

Queen Dido and her People were Cutting the Hide of a Cow into Thin Strips Source: simple.wikipedia.org

Along with women’s power of creation is the power of their brilliance, which allows them to think a step beyond what ordinary people would. Minerva, for example, invented Greek characters, which could be used to “write down maximum number of ideas in minimum number of words”(800). Queen Dido, who is famous for her cleverness shows her ability to think out of the box. After escaping to Africa, she asked them to sell her a piece of land that was no bigger than what could be covered by a cowhide. Shockingly, Dido cut the cowhide into tiniest strips, which she tied together to form a long rope that enclosed a huge plot of land. Compared to the directly visible powers of these women in The Book of the City of Ladies, the feminine force in the Iliad is much more indirect.

“The anger of Achilles for the loss of Briseis” CRE CUNEGO, 1769 Agamemnon compensated himself by taking Briseis from Achilles.

The indirect power of women is well illustrated in the Iliad. Helen of Sparta, also known as the “most beautiful woman in the world”(223), whose beauty has the power to start the Trojan War. It all begins when Paris, the prince of Troy, was attracted to Helen’s beauty. Despite the fact that Helen’s husband Menelaus is the King of Mycenae, Paris still insists on taking Helen with him to Troy. Menelaus, who bursts into a furious rage after Helen is taken, drawn a coalition with many Greek cities and started a decade long war with Troy. If it weren’t for Helen’s beauty, Greek and Troy would probably be able to live in peace. Helen’s beauty becomes an indirect source of power that wages a war that eventually changed the destiny of the Greece and Troy and the fate of countless number of soldiers and people. Another example is Achilles’s wife, Briseis, who also has the power that had indirectly influenced future warfare. When Agamemnon forcefully took Briseis away, Achilles, one of the strongest and the greatest heroes in Greece, was under furious pressure to decide to withdraw from The Trojan War. Later, Agamemnon sends embassy to Achilles in hope that would help Greek troops that was in danger. Achilles, who is still angry at the fact that his wife has been taken away from him, rejected Agamemnon’s offer without hesitation. As a consequence of his refusal, “the situation of the Greeks worsened rapidly” (272). Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus were all wounded and Patroclus had died. Briseis certainly has the power that indirectly influenced the fate of people who participated in that battle. Had Agamemnon not taken Achilles’s wife away, the situation of that battle would probably be totally different.

Ultimately, we have seen various types of power in women such as their physical power, power of creation, power of brilliance, and power to indirectly influence others from the two texts of literature. Look back to many philosophers, poets, and orators who said, “female nature is wholly given up to vice” (783); they have proved themselves wrong.

Work Cited

Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2015.Read More…

Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. New York: W.W. Norton, 2012. Print.

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh’s best friend Enkidu dies an untimely death as punishment for helping Gilgamesh kill the Bull of Heaven. When he sees his friend draw his last breath, Gilgamesh tears off his clothes and rips out his hair to show his intense emotions at the loss of his best friend. He continues to grieve by pacing and circling around Enkidu’s body to protect him. Gilgamesh begins to mourn his friend by speaking of all the people and things that should mourn him as he does. “May the men of the mountains and hills mourn you … May the roads of Enkidu to the Cedar Forest mourn you…” Gilgamesh then thinks back to their great battle with Humbaba and how they defeated him together. Gilgamesh continued to grieve and ordered a golden statue to be made of his friend to honor all of his deeds for the city.

Gilgamesh and Enkidu fighting Humbaba

In the months following Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh had lost touch with his kingdom and his old way of life. He did not wear any fine clothes or anything of value. He stopped looking after himself and let his hair grow wild and unkempt. Gilgamesh had killed a lion and began to wear its skin on his head to honor Enkidu’s life and birthplace in the steppe. He then roamed the steppe for weeks, weeping and thinking of his friend and questioning when his own life will end. Enkidu’s death had a immense impact on Gilgamesh and the city of Uruk as it changed his life and the people mourned his death. When Gilgamesh later meets with an innkeeper, we learn that he is looking woe in the vitals. His great grief had caused him to look ill and tired. In Homer’s Iliad, we see how Achilles mourns the death of his close friend Patroclus in a similar way.

Patroclus was Achilles’ best friend and they have known and fought alongside each other for a long time. In Book 16 of the Illiad, Patroclus is pushing the Trojans back to their walls when he is wounded by Apollo and soon after, killed by Hector. When Achilles heard the news of Patroclus’ death, he lost control of his emotions. He grabbed a handful of dirt and poured it over himself to show that in the end, everyone will die and become dirt as their body rots. He dirties his clean white clothes and weeps angrily while pounding the ground with his fists. Like Gilgamesh, Achilles tore out his hair with anger.  Antilochus bent over Achilles and wept with him and held his hands as so Achilles would not kill himself in his rage. Achilles let out a loud wrenching cry for the loss of his friend which caused dismay among the Trojan soldiers as they retreated knowing Achilles will surely join the war now.

Achilles holding Patroclus’ body

Achilles had Patroclus’ body specially prepared and cleaned for the funeral. It was washed with boiling water to clean it of any blood. It was then anointed with oil and all of the wounds were closed with a special ointment that had been aging for nine years. Patroclus’ body was then placed on a bier and covered in a linen cloth and a white robe. Achilles and his men gathered around his body and spent the night mourning his death. Achilles then vowed not to bury his body until his killer was dead. Patroclus’ death had a significant impact on Achilles as this was the event in the story that lead to his joining of the war and turning the tide of the battle. Achilles chose to display his grief for Patroclus with anger as he went to war to kill Hector. After exacting his revenge, he continued his display of grief by tying Hector’s body to the back of a chariot and dragging it in dirt for days to honor Patroclus.

The presence of women in the course of historical literature is so minor that their influence is undermined. They play very important roles to help develop and create the storyline. The women in the pieces of the Epic of Gilgamesh and The Iliad has the power to persuade and bend the dominant male character to their will. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, two women that have greatly influenced the lives of the both Gilgamesh and Enkidu are Shamhat and Ishtar. Shamhat played the role of civilizing Enkidu. Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, is powerful in the sense that she can destroy anything she wants if she doesn’t get what she wants. In The Iliad, Briseis and Achilles’ mother Thetis are not mentioned often, however they are the main catalysts for important key events. Briseis was the main cause of why Achilles refused to fight, while Thetis gave strength and support to Achilles during battles. Overall, these women exerted authority that greatly impacted the storyline.

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, women played an important role in the lives of both Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Even though there were not many women in their lives, the few that they came across changed their lives drastically. Before Enkidu was civilized, he was raised by animals. His actions and looks were similar to the animals that raised him “But as for him, Enkidu, born in the uplands, who feeds on grass with gazelles…”(103). He didn’t wear any clothes nor did he ever had any human food. When Shamhat, the prostitute tried to engage and civilize Enkidu by seducing him with her body, and coincidentally, he gave in. They made love to each other for six days. After coming in physical contact with a human, the animals refused to let him back into their life; they all ran away from Enkidu. Devastated, Enkidu turned to Shamhat for advice. She tells him about all the pleasures, like food, music, and etc., that he will find in the city of Uruk “Enkidu ate the bread until he was sated, he drank seven juglets of beer…” (107). She opened his eyes and made him see life as a human. Most importantly, she civilized him.

Shamhat seducing Enkidu with her body.

In the epic poem, The Iliad, Homer writes about the events that occurred nine years after the start of the Trojan war. The Achaeans had conquered Chryse, a town allied with Troy and acquired prizes of two beautiful girls, Chryseis and Briseis. Agamemnon, the leading general of the Achaeans, took Chryseis and Achilles, the greatest warrior, took Briseis. However, Chryseis and Briseis’ father, Chryses, a priest of the sun god Apollo, begged to have his daughters return to him “But give me my daughter back and accept this ransom out of respect…” (230). Apollo sends a plague haunting Agamemnon’s camp, killing a vast number of Achaeans “He will not lift this foul plague from the Greeks until we return the dancing-eyed girl to her father…(232). Agamemnon investigated this phenomenon and discovered that he needed to give back the daughters to stop the plague. He sends back Chryseis and forcefully takes back Briseis from Achilles “Since Phoebus Apollo is taking away my Chryesis, I’m coming to your hut and taking Briseis” (234). Undoubtedly, Achilles feels bitter about the way Agamemnon’s treatment towards him. He feels insulted and downgraded from his status as the greatest warrior on the Archaeans’ side. Furiously, he leaves his position from the ships and returns to his tent, refusing to fight or defend from the Trojan’s attack. With the absence of Achilles, the Achaeans suffer great losses as their Trojan enemies had formable forces, Hector and Zeus.

Agamemnon taking Briseis from Achilles.

Although Achilles’ mother, Thetis is not mentioned much, she is forgotten and deemed to have little to do with Achilles’ success as the most invincible being when he is mad. However, Thetis raised and guided Achilles to be powerful and proved to be his support system in any situation. Upon her son’s request, she persuades Zeus to join and help the Trojans fight the Archaeans “Father Zeus, if I have ever helped you… Honor my son, doomed to die young…”(243) . Achilles, at the moment was still mad at Agamemnon taking away Briseis so he wished ill for the Archaeans during his absence from the battlefield. Later, when he needed armor to avenge Patroclus, Thetis makes sure her son receives the best. She goes all the way to Mount Olympus to convince Hephaestus to forge him a suit of impenetrable armor “Will give my son, doomed to die young, a shield and helmet, a fine set of greaves, and a corselet too…”(295). Thetis is a loving and dedicated mother to Achilles. Her actions enabled him to complete god-like strengths that made his name known throughout Greece and history.

Thetis asks Hephaestus to produce armor for her son Achilles

Many times throughout literature and even history, women’s presence is so minor that we often overlook how important their influence is. Women’s influence in persuading and bending men’s decision was proved many times in both the the Epic of Gilgamesh and The Iliad.

What is a true friend?  A true friend is someone who is there for you in good times and bad.  Someone you enjoy spending time with – whether it’s the small everyday things or major adventures.  Someone you share good news with and someone who consoles you when things are bad.  Someone you share a deep bond with, a soul mate.  Many people are never lucky enough to find someone like this, but those who are develop a love that transcends time.  It’s not surprising that with feelings as strong as these, the death of one of the friends brings with it feelings of deep despair.  The surviving friend cannot imagine how he will ever go on without his partner.  Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Achilles and Patroclus in Homer’s Iliad experienced these extreme emotions.  They shared amazing bonds during their lives and experienced utter devastation upon their partners’ deaths.  Gilgamesh and Achilles were narcissistic, arrogant, selfish, and brutal to almost everyone else, yet each surprisingly found a lifelong partner who they had nothing but love and respect for, relied upon, and shared adventures with. They confided in each other and sought comfort in times of need. They did everything together and were partners in the truest sense.  The bonds they formed with their partners were in total contrast to their natures. It defied all logic, but yet it happened.

Gilgamesh was a tyrannical ruler who cared about no one but himself. He raped women and took anyone or anything he wanted. He was an absolute brute.   Enkidu was sent as an adversary to challenge Gilgamesh.  At their first meeting, they fought viciously in the streets. This made it even more astonishing that they became so close.  From that moment on, they were inseparable. They confronted Humbaba hand in hand.  They came up with a plan to slay the Bull of Heaven which required teamwork to be successful.  Enkidu would grab the Bull and Gilgamesh would stick his dagger into it.  Even before they met, Gilgamesh dreamt about meeting someone he would fall in love with, a companion who would be there for him in times of trouble.  The language used in the dreams was so sensual, that you would think that it was describing a woman.  “There will come to you a strong one, a companion who rescues a friend…You will fall in love with him and caress him like a woman.  He will be mighty and rescue you, time and again.”  (Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 106, lines 261-266)

Gilgamesh and Enkidu Fight Humbaba

Achilles was just as vicious.  He felt absolutely no remorse killing people, yet he maintained a strong friendship with Patroclus up until Patroclus’ death.  They were inseparable.  They fought alongside each other and even spent time with each other when they weren’t fighting battles.  When a delegation from Agamemnon came to try and persuade Achilles to rejoin the fight, Achilles and Patroclus took turns providing food for their guests.  Patroclus roasted the meat, Achilles served it, and Patroclus offered a sacrifice at Achilles’ request.  “Patroclus obliged his beloved companion.”  (Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 261, line 209) They were in total sync with each other.  What really defined their friendship was the trust that they had in one another.  Although Achilles absolutely refused to return to battle even when Patroclus begged him, he gave his friend his special divine armor so that he could lead the people.   This was the armor that his mother had given to him and that meant the world to him.  This act was so totally unselfish and showed the trust that Achilles had in Patroclus.

Friendship Between Achilles and Patroclus

Even more amazing than the close bond that they shared during their lifetimes, is the tenderness that Gilgamesh and Achilles displayed to their friends upon their deaths.  They were devastated and mourned deeply for their friends.  There was nothing that they wouldn’t do to make sure that their friends were given the proper attention and care once they were dead.  Gilgamesh, usually so vain and obsessed with his appearance, gave no thought at all to his appearance when he mourned his friend.  He replaced his royal clothes with animal skins and he let his hair grow matted.  His heart was broken and he lovingly tended to his friend.  “He hovers around him like an eagle…He paced to and fro, back and forth, tearing out and hurling away the locks of his hair.  Ripping off and throwing away his fine clothes like something foul.”  (Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 133, lines 54-58)  He was so wracked with emotion and didn’t want to accept that Enkidu was dead.  “My friend whom I so loved, who went with me through every hardship…Six days and seven nights I wept for him.  I would not give him up for burial until a worm fell out of his nose.”  (Epic of Gilgamesh, p.138, lines 46-51)

Gilgamesh at Enikdu’s Deathbed

Achilles was equally heartbroken over the death of his friend and mourned him in much the same way, replacing his usual beautiful clothing with clothes of mourning.  “A mist of black grief enveloped Achilles.  He scooped up fistfuls of sunburn dust and poured it on his head fouling his beautiful face.  Black ash grimed his fine-spun cloak…, and lay there, tearing out his hair with his hands.”  (Iliad, p.284, lines 23-29)  He was miserable because he felt responsible for Patroclus’ death.  If only he had stopped him from going out to battle and not given him his armor.    He couldn’t rest until he retrieved Patroclus’ body because he couldn’t bear the thought of his beloved friend’s body being mutilated by his enemies.  This was a person who spent his life brutally killing others, not caring how much pain and torture he inflicted on them and their families, but when it came to his friend he became a totally different person, someone so loving and gentle.   He tenderly prepared Patroclus’ body for burial.  He washed it, anointed it with olive oil, put ointment on his wounds, laid him on his bed on soft cloth, and mourned for him throughout the night.  He became consumed with thoughts of the life they shared and felt so very lonely.  “He tossed and turned yearning for Patroclus.  For his manhood and his noble heart, and all they had done together, the hard times at sea.  (Iliad, p. 312, lines 7-10)

Achilles Mourning Patroclus

Gilgamesh and Enkidu and Achilles and Patroclus achieved what many of us can only wish for but can never quite obtain.  Two brutal demi-gods went against their basic natures and forged life-changing friendships.  These friendships provided them with deep, enduring bonds, intense love, trust, and partnerships that lasted a lifetime.  Their friendships brought out the humanity in them, something that was so lacking in their dealings with others.  Their feelings ran so deep that when confronted with the death of their friends, they were devastated and inconsolable and did whatever was in their power to ensure that their friends were given a proper burial and the respect that they deserved.  Losing someone who you treasure is extremely hard to live through.  However, while that person may not be physically with you anymore, the memories of your wonderful times together will live on forever.

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Epic of Gilgamesh and Enkidu with Achilles and Patroclus, Beowulf and Hrothgar.

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