Great Works of Literature I (Fall 2016)

In the Oxford dictionary, the word “jump” has 8 definitions. I found this interesting for I never thought about the word “jump” as meaning anything other than a leap, a spring from the ground etc–and this is in fact the first definition for it on the Oxford dictionary. A “descent on a parachute,” “a journey, trip,” “jazz music with a strong beat,” and “a sudden involuntary movement caused by a shock” are some of the definitions that follow. Although most of them embody essentially the same concept there were some strange definitions which I had never seen before. For instance, in 1934 & in 1970 the word jump was used as an “act of copulation, sexual intercourse” and in 1598-1641 there were many instances in which it was used to describe “a dangerous critical moment.” The word has been used since the 16th century and is present in both Hamlet and Anthony & Cleopatra, plays written by William Shakespeare.

The word “jump” shows up twice in Hamlet and it took me quite a while to figure out its specific meaning in each given passage. It first appears in Act I, Scene 1, Line 77 (on page 658 in the Norton Anthology III Volume C) and has a footnote which gives the word the definition of “just.” This first mention of the word is in a short phrase spoken by Marcellus which states “Thus twice before, and jump at this dead hour/ With martial stalk hath he gone by our watch.” Marcellus is telling Horatio about the ghost of the king and how it has appeared twice before just at this exact hour. The Oxford Dictionary has no entries in which the definition of jump could be something like “always, only or just” which makes it interesting to see the way in which it is used by Shakespeare. If the footnote was not present, I probably would’ve interpreted the word jump in the given phrase as “appeared in a sudden involuntary movement”, which I believe would make sense since we are talking about a ghost and be more similar to the types of definitions found on the OED.

The second time the word comes up is in Act 5, Scene 2, Line 417 (on page 752 in The Norton Anthology Volume C). It is spoken by Horatio to Fortinbras and the ambassador in quite a substantial statement. It follows:
” Not from his
mouth,
Had it th’ ability of life to thank you.
He never gave commandment for their death.
But since, so jump upon this bloody question,
You from the Polack wars, and you from England,
Are here arrived, give order that these bodies
High on a stage be placed to the view,
And let me speak to text from the Folio not found in the Second Quartoth’text from the Folio not found in the Second Quarto yet unknowing world
How these things came about. So shall you hear
Of carnal, bloody, and unnatural acts,
Of accidental judgments, casual slaughters,
Of deaths put on by cunning and text from the Folio not found in the Second Quartoforcedtext from the Folio not found in the Second Quarto cause,
And, in this upshot, purposes mistook
Fall’n on th’ inventors’ heads. All this can I
Truly deliver.

In this passage, the word jump is utilized to describe a soon arrival. The word “upon” which comes right after jump has a footnote explaining that it means “so immediately on.” Horatio tells the Ambassador and Fortinbras that since they have come so soon upon this bloody question (referring to all the killing that has just taken place) then they must display the bodies and Horatio will tell the world of how this tragedy came to happen. The way in which Shakespeare uses the word in this passage differs from the way in which he used it on the first passage. In the first instance it was understood to mean “just, only” and here to mean “soon, immediately” (a sudden abrupt movement is a definition for jump on the EOD).

Therefore, based on my analysis I believe that if we understand the meaning and history of the word jump, we are able to have a fuller understanding of the passages in which it is utilized. When I initially read, I found it strange that the word was even placed in these passages however after reading over its history and the other ways in which it has been used over time I think I am starting to understand. The word jump represents something significant, abrupt and unexpected in a way. In the first passage the appearance of the ghost is something unexpected and strange so using the word jump emphasizes the fear and surprise which was felt by those who were present. Meanwhile on the following passage, using the word jump emphasizes how quickly Fortinbras showed up after the killing occurred. Of all the times he could’ve arrived, he happened to arrive right when everyone was already dead.

The word “marry (v.)” originated in c.1300 from the Old French word “marier”, meaning to give (offspring) in marriage. The Oxford English Dictionary defines “marry” in fourteen ways, most commonly referring to a join in marriage or a unity of some sort. However, another use of the word “marry” is as an interjection, which has been deemed obsolete and archaic in modern times. “Marry” as an interjection originated as a common oath in the Middle Ages (mid-14^th century). It was used a variant of the mother of Jesus Christ, Virgin Mary, typically known as a minced oath, a form of cursing, for its corruption of the name of the Virgin Mary. The Oxford English Dictionary defines “marry (interj.)” as (1) expressing surprise, astonishment, outrage, etc., or (2) used to give emphasis to one’s words, often in response to a question, expressing surprise that it should be asked.

Throughout the play, Shakespeare mainly uses “marry” as an interjection as seen in the line Hamlet says to Horatio “Aye, marry, is’t:/ But to my mind, though I am native here/ And to the manner born, it is a custom/ More honored in the breach than the observance (I.4.13-16).” As Horatio hears trumpets go off in the distance, in celebration of the king guzzling down German wine, Horatio asks Hamlet whether the ruckus is a custom. Hamlet responds with “Aye, marry, is’t,” which would literally translate to “Yes, indeed, it is.” The translation of “marry” in the excerpt would most closely fit in with the second definition of “marry” as an interjection. Hamlet uses “marry” as a response to Horatio’s question. Additionally, “marry” is used as an interjection during the dialogue between Polonius and Renaldo, when Polonius states “Marry, well said, very well said (II.1.6).” In this case, “marry” could be translated as “excellent”, expressing either astonishment or contentment. From these two excerpts, it can be seen that Shakespeare uses “marry” mostly as an interjection rather than the verb form. However, in Act III, the meaning of “marry” begins to vary as Hamlet speaks to Ophelia.

In Act III, Hamlet pushes Ophelia to become a nun as he says “If thou dost marry, I’ll give thee this plague for thy dowry: be thou as chaste as ice, as pure as snow, thou shalt not escape calumny. Get thee to a nunnery, do: farewell. Or, if thou wilt needs marry, marry a fool; for wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them. To a nunnery, go; and quickly too. Farewell (III.1.131-134).” All instances of the word “marry” in this passage refer to the current definition of marry, which is to enter into the state of matrimony.

Shakespeare varies the meaning of “marry” passage to passage. More specifically, in the presence of Ophelia, the “marry” that is used as a form of corruption, of the name of the Virgin Mary, is not said.  Understanding the meaning and history of the word “marry”, augments the idea of Ophelia as the allegorical depiction of the Virgin Mary and of the play Hamlet as an Annunciation parody.

Now, in our times, we could use the word Hamlet the way Shakespeare used the character Hamlet. Realistic humanism is something Shakespeare brings forth in his plays, where characters are not portrayed one-dimensionally. Thus, the character Hamlet is dynamic like a real human self. His emotional presentations fluctuate rather abruptly and his lost sense of conviction, doubtful thinking, death contemplation and stagnant decision making all reflect a real human self. Hamlet could also be seen as an individual drenched in skepticism trying to find his place in an unstable society that has distorted traditional institutions.

One could detect Hamlet’s dynamic character and impulsive behavior throughout the play. In Act 3 Scene 4, without checking, he impulsively strikes Polonius behind the arras (lines 21-24). In Act 3 scene 1, Hamlet reveals his dynamic character when he admits that he loved Ophelia but not anymore and he tells her that she should not believe in what men say (line 125): “Hamlet: …I did love you once. Ophelia: Indeed, my lord, you made me believe so. Hamlet: You should not have believed me; for virtue cannot so inoculate our old stock, but we shall relish of it: I loved you not. Ophelia: I was the more deceived” (lines 114-118).

Hamlet is no hero to those who value the opposite of Hamlet’s characteristics. They find Hamlet to be weak and they take the character in a negative way.  J. Maynard in Russia in Flux writes, “One type [of social missionary] is of the Don Quixote type… Another is of the Hamlet type, a bastard aristocrat, introspective and poetical, is merely ineffectual, and dies by suicide” (1941). A New York Times article used Hamlet negatively once as well: “We cannot allow ourselves to become the Hamlet of nations, worrying endlessly over whether and how to respond” (1984). Thus, the character Hamlet has now become associated with human deficiencies, such as indecisiveness.

The OED defines Hamlet as, “Used allusively, esp. to denote a troubled, indecisive, or capricious person”. The word Hamlet is now used to describe someone with negative connotations, but this can change. We are using the word Hamlet the way Shakespeare used the character Hamlet; that means the definition is contingent on one’s perception of the character. The definition of the word Hamlet is open ended. Positive perceptions will yield positive definitions. Perceiving Hamlet as a character trying to find his place in both life and society can constitute better, more relevant, definitions for the word Hamlet in our times.

In the Oxford English Dictionary, the word “extravagant” (adjective) has six definitions. According to the Oxford Pocket Dictionary, the current definition of “extravagant,” or what it has come to mean, is “lacking restraint in spending money or using resources” or “costing too much money.” However, the word “extravagant” that we know now originated from a different meaning. The word has been in use since the beginning of the Seventeenth Century and is recorded as being used in works by famous writers like Shakespeare and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Its definition was originally: “that wanders out of bounds; straying, roaming, vagrant” (OED).

The word “extravagant” shows up only once in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It can be found in Act 1, Scene 1, Line 154 (page 660 in Norton Anthology III Volume C). In the Norton Anthology, the word has a footnote that says: “wandering out of its confines,” which is similar to the aforementioned definition from the Oxford English Dictionary.

The passage in which the word is found is a short speech spoken by Horatio. It is interesting that Horatio uses this word in particular, and that this is the only line in the whole play in which the line is used, because of Horatio’s background as a character. In doing some research about Horatio, I found that his origins are largely unknown, almost as if Horatio himself is “out of his confines” in the play.

Additionally, this short speech follows the first entrance and exit of “Ghost.” Horatio pleads with the Ghost, asking the Ghost to tell them about what the future holds for the country. The Ghost, somewhat like Horatio, also seems to be “extravagant” in the sense that the Ghost is roaming and somewhat out of its confines, or out of place among the living. In fact, this is exactly how Horatio uses the word. He describes the Ghost or “spirit” as extravagant, saying: “I have heard the cock, that is the trumpet to the morn, doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat awake the god of day, and at his warning, whether in sea or fire, in earth or air, the extravagant and erring spirit hies this present object made probation” (Lines 149-156). Horatio seems to be saying that the Ghost is out of place when the morning comes, or that the Ghost is most fitting in the dark of night.

The meaning of the word “extravagant” and its usage towards the beginning of Hamlet is important because it sets up the character of the Ghost. It creates a sort of mystery around the Ghost right from the Ghost’s very first appearance in the play. The uses of “extravagant” (meaning “out of place”) lets readers know that they should pay attention the Ghost, because the Ghost is “out of its confines,” or striking, and, in a way, conspicuous in its initial mystery.

I find myself regularly employing the term happy to describe my state of being. However, the definition is not clear to me still. Some explain it as joyful, others as content. Some even define it as having no cares at all. Shakespeare utilized with word throughout his many texts to mean something similar, but different still that the nuance is crucial to the careful reader of his works.

The Oxford English Dictionary first defines happy as ‘a person favored by good fortune; someone who is lucky, fortunate, or successful.’ This is quite scarcely related to a person who feels a certain way. If one wins a million dollars, the term only applies to this person as far as their circumstances extend. How they feel receiving this gift is irrelevant to the original definition of happy.

However, as the word developed over time, it came to be used in the more known sense, as connoting ‘pleasing appropriateness.’ This is the first definition that can be found in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Hamlet responds to a comment made regarding an ensuing event that it will occur “in happy time” (V. ii. 219). It is clear from this instance that Hamlet wishes to convey that the event will unfold when is appropriate. He is not regarding fortune or success. Rather, Hamlet is simply stating that it will happen when it is supposed to. Similarly, in III. i. 41, the queen tells Ophelia that she hopes her “good beauties be the happy cause of Hamlet’s wildness.” Although the other definitions may fit here, it seems that Shakespeare is referring in some way to pleasure. Writing of good looks and wildness, Shakespeare is employing the last and most modern definition of happy.

It appears that, since the three definitions are similar, certain contexts remain ambiguous to the reader. For example, in II. ii. 246, Hamlet asks Rosencrantz and Guildenstern how they are doing. Guildenstern replies that they are “Happy in that we are not overhappy.” Happy can be used in this way as fortunate, content, or sincerely pleased. The vagueness of this term provides a certain flavor to the text. Shakespeare utilizes each definition throughout his many works, so it is very possible that at times he is playing with the word, leaving its meaning open to the reader. As students of Shakespeare’s genius, we can gain insight into the world of word play and the embracement of ambiguity in our poetic writing.

The word “doubt” originated in Latin and moved through Old French into Middle English. Doubt has grown two branches of meaning: uncertainty or mistrust and fear or suspicion. The latter branch is archaic and mostly obsolete but was common in Middle English. Both meanings coexisted in Shakespeare’s time.

When Hamlet hears of his father’s ghostly roaming, he says, “My father’s spirit in arms! all is not well; / I doubt some foul play: would the night were come! / Till then sit still, my soul: foul deeds will rise, / Though all the earth o’erwhelm them, to men’s eyes” (1.2.254-257). Here, he is using the word in the meaning of “to suspect,” although there may also be an undercurrent of fear implied. Either way, an overall feeling of intrigue hovers over the scene, a distinct presence of the unknown.

The king uses “doubt” to mean “to fear” after he witnesses Hamlet’s dismissal of Ophelia:  “There’s something in his soul / O’er which his melancholy sits on brood, / And I do doubt the hatch and the disclose / Will be some danger . . .” (3.2.158-161). Although the king does not know exactly what Hamlet is thinking, he realizes there is a method to his madness. He fears Hamlet’s plots. If we read this line without knowing the alternate meaning of “doubt,” it reads opposite to what the king is saying, as in he does not think danger is likely. Yet the coexistence of these meanings invites us to consider the entirety of the word: suspicion and uncertainty alongside the main definition Shakespeare referred to.

Shakespeare does, however, use “doubt” to mean “to be uncertain or divided in opinion about” throughout the play. Hamlet employs this modern meaning in his poem to Ophelia: “Doubt thou the stars are fire; / Doubt that the sun doth move; / Doubt truth to be a liar; / But never doubt I love” (2.2.115-118). Hamlet’s passionate character is on full display in this poem, but it need not be strictly an avowal of love. We can easily interpret the poem as a firm disavowal of love if we read “doubt” with another definition, as in “never suspect I love.” Considering Hamlet’s turbulent attitude toward Ophelia, this double entendre fits well.

If we understand the meaning and history of the word “doubt”, the following aspects of Hamlet are illuminated: the suspicion, fear, and uncertainty dominating Hamlet’s atmosphere and the intersection between these often contradictory emotions.

Storytelling

Body:

The Thousand and One Nights: Using storytelling to delay negative outcomes- both in the main story and in within the stories. Connects to this idea that characters in the story can never give up an opportunity to hear a story.

• Shahrazad- “I would like you to marry me to King Shahrayar, so that I may either succeed in saving the people or perish and die like the rest” (562)
• The Story of the Fisherman and the Demon- “Fisherman, don’t do it. Spare me and save me and don’t blame me for my action and offense against you. If I did ill, you should do good. As the saying goes, ‘Be kind to him who wrongs you.’ Don’t do what Imama did to ‘Atika.” The fisherman asked, “What did Imama do to ‘Atika?” (591)

Dante’s Inferno: For Dante, the character, storytelling is both a form of immortalizing and thus in some ways a way to “pay a debt” or “repay others” and something that he expects to receive. In some ways his ability to retell these stories make him more worthy than the sinners and he emphasizes this by repeating this.

• “you taught me how man makes himself eternal./ And while I live my tongue shall always speak/ of my debt to you, and of my gratitude. ” (442)
• “‘I am a living man’ was my reply, / ‘and it might serve you well, if you seek fame,/ for me to put your name down in my notes” (502)
• “this man can give you what all long for here,/ and so bend down, and do not scowl at us./ He still can spread your legend in the world,/ for he yet lives, and long life lies before him,/ unless Grace summons him before his time” (499)

The Odyssey: Odysseus uses story telling as a way to build social bonds in order to gain help from the hosts he visits. By not giving away his identity at first and instead telling stories of his journey and then revealing who he is, he makes himself appear better.

Chosen Prompt:

The uses of storytelling. People tell each other stories, over and over, in the poems, plays, and stories we have read. And they seem to do this for various reasons: self-expression and confession (storytelling as a means of communicating self to world); building social bonds (storytelling as a kind of gift, or debt); to delay a negative outcome (storytelling as strategy). Looking at two or more texts—or two or more storytelling characters—write an argumentative, analytical essay on the uses of storytelling. NOTE: You may use the Odyssey, here, but only in addition to two other texts.

Storytelling in the Odyssey:

Used to bring pleasure to the listeners – Bards are usually called upon to recite stories at dinner/parties. For instance in Ithaca when Telemachus and the suitors are at Odysseus’ house and in Phaeacia when the bard is called upon to tell stories when all the men are gathered with Odysseus.

Used to reflect on the past, inform others – When Menelaus and Helen are telling Telemachus about the Trojan war, when Agamemnon tells Odysseus the story of his murder in the underworld. This use of stories in the odyssey is crucial to the structure of the story as a whole as it utilizes stories to clue the readers in. This is especially helpful since the Odyssey comes after the Iliad and one who has not read the Iliad would be lost were it not for the abundant storytelling found within the text.

Storytelling in The Thousand and One Nights:

Used to threaten/give life lessons: When the father of Shahrazad is trying to convince her not to marry the king he tells her the story about the donkey and the ox and the story about the merchant and his wife. The first story is to serve as a lesson while the second can be considered a threat. Additionally, when the Fisherman is telling the Demon about the story of the King and the wise man who cured him. He tells the story to warn him of what is going to happen to him if he does not let the fisherman live.

Used to delay a negative outcome: Once Shahrazad marries the king she starts telling him stories every night without ever finishing them in order to stay alive.

Storytelling in The Inferno:

Used to confess one’s sins: Towards the end of the inferno, there are sinners who tell Dante what sin they committed in order to confess, to get the weight off their shoulders in a way.

Used as a way to be remembered in the future: Sinners tell Dante their stories so that he can include them in his poem and as a result they will be read about for many years. In fact, when Dante is in the last few circles of Hell, he fails to feel any pity towards these spirits and the only thing he can offer them is a place in his poem.

First Person:

The Thousand and One Nights:

The I is used mostly for narrative and dialogic purposes: Shahrazad uses I to start her story each night & to present the conversations the characters within her stories have with each other.

Wang Wei & translations of “Deer Park”:

The I partially acts as a placeholder/means of translating between languages with different structural rules. I is used not directly to mean a first-person narrator, but as a way to describe the landscape.

Dante’s Inferno:

The I describes the experiences of Dante, the Pilgrim, giving the reader only his point of view. In a way, the reader is perceiving Hell through the eyes/experiences of Dante. However, this gives the reader insight to how Dante, the Pilgrim, is as a person/character.

Prompt 6:

Justice/Crime and Punishment: In almost all of the texts we have read, some conception of justice—especially when it comes to punishment comes into play. Yet justice is never an easy concept to pin down. For instance, in the Odyssey, the suitors violate the codified guest-host relationship, yet, for some readers, Odysseus’ response—mass slaughter—seems in excess of what might be considered “just.” Think about other systems that are violated in the text we’ve read— divine laws in Antigone and the Inferno; the laws of the city in Antigone; the inscrutable rules by which demons operate in The Thousand and One Nights. Certain texts, like Antigone, offer multiple, competing conceptions of justice. Others, like the Inferno, offer vivid portraits of justice enacted on the souls of sinners—with very little outright theorization of the “laws” behind these punishments. Write an argumentative paper analyzing the “fit” between crime and punishment in the systems of justice articulated (or implied) in two or more different texts we have read this semester.

Intro: Laws are distinctions between right and wrong solidified by the authority governing a society. They are meant to guide people toward the behavior deemed best for creating and maintaining peace. In order to ensure that they are taken seriously, penalties are devised for people who act in opposition to the standards set by the body in power. Of course, every offense does not receive the same sanction. Rather, crimes are assessed, ranked and assigned corresponding punishments based on their decided severity. As such, it can be argued that any given system of law reflects its central figure’s priorities, and emulates a particular interpretation of morality. Law and authority should remain impartial so as to promote equity, but when it is effectively based on a personality, bias is inherently embedded. Crimes and their punishments become less about the good of the public, and more related to offense against the figure most openly active in command. In Dante’s Inferno, and Sophocles’ Antigone, the actions which are considered to be criminal, and the severity of corresponding punishments, evince the presence of egotistical taint in each narrative’s system of law and authority.

Inferno:

God is the figure of authority who determines what is a crime, how bad it is, and how the offender will be punished. He is supposed to be an almighty figure, and so acts such as suicide and soothsaying are sinful because they remove from His self-incited power.

• God is understood to be the father of everything in Christianity. He dictates birth and death, and has incredible influence over our fate. When someone commits suicide they are, effectively, stealing the power over their own life away from God. For someone like Pier della Vigna encountered in the 7th circle, who was unhappy toward the end of his life due to accusation from the court around him, suicide appeared to be a way to end his suffering. Law is supposed to help keep the people happy, and for Vigna death seemed like a better option. Nonetheless, he is punished for essentially deciding to try and form happiness on his own terms. (Canto XIII)
• Christianity, and religion in general, rely heavily on having faith in that which does not have scientific proof. One soothsayer Dante and Virgil encounter is Michael Scot, accused of knowing every kind of magical fraudulence, but the footnotes describe him as a scientist, philosopher, and astrologist. There are all conventions which challenge divinity, but do not have immediately adverse effects on a society. He is condemned to the 4^th bolgia not for harming a neighbor, rather for raising a threat to loyalty toward God’s control. (Canto XX)

Antigone:

While the gods in Greek mythology were widely accepted as divine and absolute, there were earthly figures of authority. Kreon, as king, does have to govern the people in a more direct manner than the gods do. However, instead of staying in his lane as a glorified manager, he allows his ego to taint the law.

• In declaring that Polyneikes may not be buried he replaces divine law with his own interpretation of morality regarding loyalty to the state. Then, in refusing to pardon Antigone, despite the public’s disapproval of his action (voiced by Haimon around line 765), he admittedly is looking out for his own reputation before setting the proper example of understanding and neutral justice the society deserves. (line 1212)

Conclusion:

God’s ego is based on his determinate power, any acts which relinquish him of control are then deemed sinful and worthy of 7^th level of inferno punishment despite their minute afffet on society. Glutton and avarice which actually do directly take away from others, for example, are found several levels up (3&4)

Kreon’s ego is based on his reputation, being perceived as a strong, stern, but basically chauvinist leader. Having to admit he is wrong to the public is inconceivable to him until it is far too late, though it is what his subjects wanted from him. Showing compassion would have set an example as an honest man, instead his actions set precedent for stubbornness at the expense of others.