The image titled “Creole portee en hamak” found in the John Carter Brown archive depicts a woman Creole, a person of European descent born in the Americas, being transported on a hammock by two indigenous men. The scene portrayed in the image takes place in The Guianas in 1701-1750 and was published in Paris. In the image, the indigenous men are dressed simply and the woman is in white robes. The men also appear to be struggling with carrying the weight, resorting to using their shoulders to help. The woman is holding her hand over her face, most likely as an attempt to keep from being too hot.

  Every aspect of this image demonstrates the struggle people of indigenous and African descent faced under Spanish influence in the Americas. The woman opting not to walk and instead forcing two men to carry her demonstrates her own willingness to adopt slave labor, as well as her indifference towards the suffering the men were going through carrying her in the heat. The image also represents average Creole indifference to indigenous and African peoples’ suffering in the Americas since slaves were imported and the natives subjugated. 

The woman depicted in the image is actively participating in a system of exploitation implemented by the French and Spanish in the Americas, in which the Spanish placed themselves above natives and Africans politically, economically, and socially. Scenes like “Creole portee en hamak” were common and accepted in Latin America, due to the casta system put in place by the Spaniards that discouraged all forms of social quality in all ways of life.

Although there is not much going on in this photo, the backstory of this monument is quite fascinating for the reason it was built. It was built as a monument to pay respects to those who lost their lives defending Buenos Aires in 1806. Britain was invading Spanish colonies and when they invaded Buenos Aires the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata abandoned them and left them to fight for themselves. The British sought to gain control of the region for trading.

However strong and powerful the British were as an empire, they failed to take control of Buenos Aires and were pushed back without the help of the Viceroyalty. The people realized they should be independent as they were able to defend themselves and did not need the Spanish empire. The Creoles there were very economically liberal but had very few promises for the poor and common people. So the Creoles campaigned and traveled North for support of their views economically and get beaten back by the people negatively affected by free trade from the British. 

Furthermore, the image itself shows smoking urns, weapons from the time period, flags, skulls, and a plaque with three hands holding each other. This is in tribute to the soldiers who died and there is also a pattern of three in the image, three smoking urns, and three hands. At the top of the monument are the flags of the soldiers and a skull with a crown of plants. The monument itself is almost symmetrical, with what appears to be two religious figures in different poses on the side. In between, is a text that may refer to the battle, and under that cannon balls. As mentioned before, with the lack of events physically happening in the picture, the picture itself has history and tells a story.

Mexican Gentlemen 

JCB Archive of Early American Images/ Accession number: 05425/ Image: Mexican Gentlemen

The visual shows two men riding on horseback. Both men are dressed in ornate garb in the Spanish style. There are lots of patterns and patchwork to make intricate shapes. Both have hats that blend with the general European style, with added colored edged brims and band cloths. The horses look well groomed with their hair, having a side strudel. The horses have leather saddles, one with what looks like fur, and the other having what appears to be an ornate caparison with complex patterns, having woven tassels on the caparison’s edges to illustrate decoration further. Notably, both horse saddles are equipped with a pair of stirrups. Both men are fair-skinned, most likely members of the creole caste. Both men have their hair with large sideburns. We can notice the different styles in which the men’s jackets are fashionable, and also particularly, the different styled shirt collars, with the man in green having a high collar. In colors, we see green and red as the main themes, appearing again and again over multiple pieces of clothing. Notably, one man carries a calvary saber, potentially noting a military role, or status, though neither is in military uniform.  

Now what we can infer from this illustration about these men in particular, and maybe the society we live in, is very clear these are both men who are high-status gentlemen. This illustration was drawn in 1824, that is three years after Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821. This means it was the early years of a newly independent Mexico trying to establish itself, free to make decisions.  Especially considering this is after the First Empire of Mexico was dissolved and a republic with a constitution was adopted. So we know these men were experiencing lots of change in terms of what leadership in the country looked like. We can tell these men depicted are of high status and wealth due to the ornate nature of their clothing. It is very detailed, and can maybe consider the colors they are using have a political motivation. Since it uses red and green, we can consider that these are colors Mexico uses on its flag, as opposed to Bourbon white. So by wearing these colors, they could be indicating support for the republic. We can also add to the context that these men in particular are probably benefiting a lot from the independence movement, as they will work towards generating more wealth from more trade-focused policies.  

I also think of Ildefonso Coronel from the Camilla Townsend article. These men illustrated appear to be of a similar disposition to what class Ildefonso was a part of, and we may consider that they would be in similar situations in terms of business and navigating the social intricacies of their region. These men are probably considered “leading citizens”. Mexico did not end slavery until 1829, so at the time of this illustration, slavery was still legal, and these men are experiencing that time in this illustration. So the activities Ildefonso was participating in could very well be similar to what they did in their life and what could have been expected of them, such as, for example, in Ildefonso’s “Where young people’s clubs met to read works of men such as Thomas Jefferson and Abbe Raynal” and also business deadline such as “He would soon form a relationship with Gibbs, Crawley & Co.” These are the types of activities these men as members of the creole class could have been participating in during and after the independence movements. 

Works Cited 

Townsend, Camilla. “Angela Batallas: A Fight for Freedom in Guayaquil.” The Human Tradition in Colonial Latin America 

“Mexican Gentlemen.” Mexican Gentlemen – JCB Archive of Early American Images, https://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/JCB~1~1~105~230252:Mexican-Gentlemen?sort=image_date%2Csubject_groups&qvq=w4s%3A%2Fwhen%2F1801-1850%3Bq%3Amexico%3Bsort%3Aimage_date%2Csubject_groups%3Blc%3AJCB~1~1&mi=24&trs=86. 

The Incan ruler was captured as the Europeans expanded and took over. This image shows what they would do as they conquered over land and would come across someone who stands in their way. They would kill or imprison the ruler/leader of the group to show that they are in control now. In this image they imprisoned Incan ruler Atahualpa. He was actually the last emperor of the Inca Empire. Although the Incans did have their spears and man made weapons to put up a fight, the Europeans were much more advanced as seen in the image. They had guns and cannons on top of their weapons. So once they had the leader, they took control and made it that land and those people part of their Empire.

While still in control in the 1700’s, they would try to modernize the empire and maximize their profits to keep up with Great Britain and France but it would lead to their empire actually weakening. Tupac Amaru didn’t like what they were doing and was actually affected by them opening up trades. It led to a rebellion that was led by Tupac Amaru and had a big following. However, Tupac Amaru would not make it to see them finally gain their Independence. They would kill him only a year later to send a message to others who would try to lead a rebellion against them. They killed his family and then him in front of all the other people to see. Although, in the end the rebellion did start something bigger which ultimately led to their independence.

These two situations represent how things were being run by the Spanish Empire back in the day. They would basically come and conquer without giving in. Once they took over they would put their new laws and rules in order and whoever revolted or spoke their mind against them would pay with their lives.

In the center of the image you have the Royal coat of arms of Ferdinand VII of Spain, signifying Spain’s involvement in their colonies in the Americas. The description of the image says that this image was made in 1809 but Ferdinand VII had already been imprisoned by Napoleon Bonaparte and replaced by his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Perhaps Spain’s colonies in the west had not yet been informed of Ferdinand’s imprisonment or perhaps it was hidden from them. But above the coat of arms is the Eye of Providence which is also known as the Eye of God showing how God is watching and blessing Spain’s involvement in the west.

Around the Coat of arms are 4 women, two of them are seen wearing native clothing and the other two are wearing European clothing essentially signifying that they are superior to them because they are more civilized. The native women would be of Mayan culture. The European women are seen essentially helping the Mayan women, introducing them to the Spanish as they are surrounding the coat of arms. They are in Guatemala which is one of the colonies they owned in Central America at the time.

At the edges of the image there is a rising sun and a setting sun. Guatemala is now part of Spain’s grand empire at the time which expanded from Latin America all the way to the Philippines. This is showing how much the empire had expanded to the point where the sun is constantly on some part of their empire.

 This artwork depicts a guy named Simón Bolivar, a military leader from Venezuela who subsequently spearheaded the liberation of Latin Americans.He was a powerful man with the ability to battle for numerous colonies. Despite coming from a wealthy family, his job required him to fight in a major war.“The barbarous Spaniards…have ravished, plundered, and brought death and destruction..let the monsters who infest Colombian soil…be cast out forever…Any Spaniard who does not…work against tyranny on behalf of this just cause, will be considered an enemy and punished” (Wood and Alexander, p. 33).This indicates that when he sought the independence of Latin America, he wanted those who no longer belonged to the region to either join or become allies. Because he wanted everyone to come together, he did not support what the Spaniards had been doing. For his role in independence to continue, he also cared for indigenous and enslaved people.

As Bolvar headed to the future he had many dreams that had then made a big impact on those in Latin america.“Whether or not these contradictions are tied to his enduring appeal, it is clear that his vision of a strong and united Latin America—an effective bulwark against an ascendant United States and imperial Europe—has always had the power to inspire polit- ical leaders in the region. Independence in Latin America left many dreams unfulfilled— dreams that in many ways have gone unfulfilled to this day—and Bolívar’s dream has been a reference point for that sense of incompleteness for nearly two centuries”( Dawson pg.16).This demonstrates not just how effective he was, but also how these disputes were a major concern.

This image shows a historical figure who had a significant effect on countries such as Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia. This was a person who cared for individuals in lower social classes than himself. Bolivar demonstrates how much of an effect one individual can have on people who need it the most.As a result, Latin America has attained the long desired freedom.

The visual above shows a French soldier seemingly threatening a Haitian soldier in the war for Independence. The French soldier looks like he is ready to kill the soldier by throwing him overboard.We also see multiple other dead Haitians in the photo overboard who have been killed by the French. The French and Haitians fought violently, which was the cause of many years of hatred and rage from both sides. By the look of the boats in the background there were heavy casualties in this photo and this represents the brutality each side had. In the text below it says “The mode of exterminating the black army, as practiced by the French”. The overall goal of the French army was not only to destroy the revolt but also, reinstall their dominance in Saint Domingue but to kill and conquer over the Haitians rebels. France wanted to dominant Saint Domingue and bring back slavery so they can gain lucrative profit from its plantations. 

There were many reasons why the fighting was ferocious in Saint Domingue. Decades of hate between the slaves and French had brought rage upon the slaves. Saint Domingue was a key financial resource in the French Empire. The French’s most valuable financial asset in its empire was Saint Domingue. It was so precious that after France was defeated in the seven years war, they gave up Canada in order to keep it. France focused on keeping up with Britain, Spain and Portugal’s influence in the new world. With the threat of the other nations slaves were brought in by the thousands to Saint Domingue, to the point where most of the population in the country was slaves. The slaves however did not have any revolts until the declaration of rights of man in 1789. This document  persuaded slaves to begin revolts against their owners and fight for their freedom. This was the first few signs of Independence. The slaves’ aggression started in 179, and it was in the Northern part of the colony.There they killed over 4,000 white men and burned over 180 slave plantations. They also brutally killed these men too, by hangings, stabs and other forms of executions. The revolt would come to halt in 1793 but start back up again in 1803. During that time slaves were free for a little and a war was fought against Britain and Spain. When the revolution started back up again in 1803 it seemed more personal between the French and Haitians. The Haitians were angered that French tried to reinstall slavery and dominant the colony and the French whom where now more focused on Saint Domingue tried to get payback for the brutal executions the Haitians had on the French. 

The visual just shows how brutal it got, men were thrown overboard and killed in terrible ways. This revolt would go down as being very gruesome and deadly. The Haitians would go on and win the revolution in 1804. 

Work Cited:

“The Mode of Exterminating the Black Army, as Practised by the French.” Edited by J. Barlow, The Mode of Exterminating the Black Army, as Practised by the French. – JCB Archive of Early American Images, 1805, https://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/JCB~1~1~577~230089:The-Mode-of-exterminating-the-Black?sort=image_date%2Csubject_groups&qvq=q%3A06847%3Bsort%3Aimage_date%2Csubject_groups%3Blc%3AJCB~1~1&mi=2&trs=9#. 

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an English-born political philosopher and revolutionary who was a strong advocate for the independence of 13 American colonies from Great Britain. He published his Pamphlet, Common Sense, in 1776 where he put forth the arguments behind his claim. Paine argued that it was absurd for an island to rule a Continent and that in order for America to avoid European conflicts, it needed to free itself from Great Britain’s rule. This shouldn’t be a matter of “no taxation without representation” anymore and must become something bigger. The American colonists had to capitalize on that. Also, Paine mentions distance and how far apart London and America are making it almost impossible for Great Britain to effectively govern its 13 colonies and even if they somehow are able to, they will do so for their benefit and not the Americans. that London was too far from America to rule it, and that the King and Parliament would inevitably rule for Britain’s benefit, not Americas. The book Paine is holding and pointing towards in the image is the Rights of Man, where he stresses over the legitimacy of a revolution if a ruling government isn’t capable of protecting the people’s natural rights anymore.

These views and arguments made their way to the 13 colonies and more than a decade later to France where the French Revolution took place between 1789-1799. This is where it gets interesting because as we talked about it in class, the Haitian (Saint Domingue) Revolution was not a mere effect of the French Revolution, far from it, but it was at the center of it. Saint Domingue was France’s most profitable colony and when the revolution issued “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,” people in the colony began to hear about it and fear among the middle class whites grew. The document granted citizenship to free people in the colony and that was a good incentive in order to suppress revolts that were starting to erupt, but that wasn’t enough. The overthrow of the monarchy angered other European powers and they declared war on France led by Napoleon. As a way to finance the war, he tries to reestablish slavery and that didn’t sit well with the people of Haiti so they started to revolt even more. Now, it wasn’t just a matter of being a citizen of France but of your own nation and sharing similar natural rights and protections under the law such as life, liberty, and property. The French couldn’t hold on to Saint Domingue and the colony declared its independence in 1804. The events of a successful slave rebellion and decolonization of a place like Haiti was very shocking and unthinkable to many around the continent and in Europe that it was often overlooked.

History isn’t something that takes place overnight, instead it’s a compilation of events that happen over the course of a lifetime. That’s why you can’t alway pinpoint at a single origin of a revolution or war because in the grand scheme of things, it takes a network of events for them to happen. The same can be said about the Latin American independence movement even with Thomas Paine in the picture. His work and ideas might have triggered a thought that had been looming around for a while and just lacked proper execution. The Tupac Amaru Rebellion (1780) was an attempt at seeking independence that ultimately failed.

Work Cited:

• Dawson, Alexander. Latin America since Independence: A History with Primary Sources. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2022.
• Wood, James A. and Anna Rose Alexander, editors. Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations. 5th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.