Reading Information:

Bernard S. Cohn, Chapter 5: “Cloth, Clothes & Colonialism in the Nineteenth Century”, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India

Overview:

In the second half of the eighteenth century, the British went from being dependent merchants of India to its rulers. Cohn explains in chapter five the importance of cloth and clothing in accomplishing such a feat. He writes that in India, clothing served more than just its practical uses. These garments, headgears and articles of jewelry had much deeper meaning attached to them. They represented power, nobility, rank in society and economic status all while embellishing long established traditions and customs. This the British successfully identified and exploited in installing their supreme authority over India and its people.

The British learned much of “clothes and its constitution of authority” through observing Mughal India (Cohn 113). Here clothing literally translated authority. Rule of law was “structured by clothing” than by leaders and followers. Higher ups wore specially designed, colorful turbans and robes of the finest materials. Delegation of power to successors, acceptance of individuals as nobles and recognition of honorable guests in the King’s court were carried out by the rewarding of khilats, ceremonial, trophy like garments. Exchange of clothes as the highest form of gifts was the norm. Denial or return of these gifts meant treachery and went against sacred tradition. Eventually, the British would take advantage of the gifting of khilats to award their brethren in order to establish themselves in India.

The British further learned of the contexts of clothing through their interactions with Indians in other settings. For example, touching one’s turban was taboo and outright disrespectful while the placement of the turban on one’s feet was a sign of defeat. In controlling clothing, the British controlled Indians’ expression of themselves. Changes to clothing both in society and military allowed for the suppression and subordination of India’s people. For instance, the incorporation of turbans for Sikhs in the military served to preserve their warrior class traits as it allowed them to maintain their religious beliefs of long hair and untrimmed beards. At the same time, the turban served as recognition of one’s military prowess, thereby serving as motivation to Sikhs in the army.

Keywords:

1. Suzerainty: A superior state in control of another state that is internally autonomous
2. Regalia: An emblem or insignia of royalty
3. Khilat: The gifting of clothing symbolic of authority and honor, ex: “robes of honor”

Argument:

Clothing served more than just its practical uses in India. These garments, headgears and articles of jewelry had much deeper meaning attached to them. They represented power, nobility, rank in society and economic status all while embellishing long established traditions and customs. This Cohn argues, the British successfully identified and exploited in installing their supreme authority over India and its people. Control of cloth and clothing allowed for control of Indian expression and individuality thus allowing for conformity to British rule.

Evidence:

Cohn makes use of the anecdotes of Englishmen directly involved during Britain’s colonization of India. This evidence is reliable and effective in that it is directly from the times being discussed. We interpret and learn of British rule through their perspective as rulers. However, one may challenge such evidence objectivity, being a one sided British portrayal of India and its people. This Cohn balances through the incorporation of the studies of other historians and usage of public records such as court rulings and colonial decision making undertaken by the Queen.

Historiographical Debate:

“I am not sure how the author is situating him/herself in a wider scholarly debate.”

Contribution to Our Understanding of Colonial Rule:

This chapter further emphasized to me the complexities involved in establishing colonial rule. Being from India and while understanding the significance of clothing, I would never have guessed that clothing could be manipulated in such a manner. Controlling clothing to suppress one’s expression and individuality. This the British accomplished as needed. For example, turbans were invented for Sikhs to preserve their military prowess believed to derive from their religious beliefs and customs. In keeping their long, uncut hair and wild beards, the British sought to also utilize existing Sikh attitudes to eliminate mutual enemies. At the same time, the turban served as conformity to British rule and motivation for continued military prowess as it was worn only by those worthy. It is rather ironic but I find it ingenious. I feel almost compelled to commend the British for their savvy tactics. I have come to realize that colonialism and imperialism is much more than military strength and capability. Rather they are processes requiring careful planning and domination in all spheres of life. It is the work of masterminds.

Reading Information:

Bernard S. Cohn, Chapter 1: “Introduction”, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India

Overview:

Before the premodern era, power was displayed “in the form of processions, progresses, royal entries, coronations, funerals and other rituals that guaranteed the well-being and continued power of the rulers over the ruled,” (Cohn 3). Britain, as other premodern states of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, sought increasingly to obtain and display power though various applications of information. Information and applied knowledge was crucial for the success of the colonial project of state building. All spheres of life and society would be defined and hence, controlled. This process included the “compilation, storage, and publication of statistical data on finance, trade, health, demography, crime, education, transportation, agriculture and industry,” Cohn 3).

To collect raw data and information, the British employed a variety of investigative modalities. “An investigative modality includes the definition of a body of information that is needed, the procedures by which appropriate knowledge is gathered, its ordering and classification, and then how it is transformed into usable forms such as published reports, statistical returns, histories, gazetteers, legal codes and encyclopedias,” (Cohn 5).

For example, the British specifically used historical modalities to learn of India’s existing form of government, its structure and capability. This information allowed the British to determine that because India’s government was deeply rooted and functional to the extent of waging war, collecting tax and settling land disputes, successful colonial rule would require incorporation, not overthrow of the existing government. Observational modalities served to identify Indians and their behavior in society. Learning of the different languages and vernaculars was important to later issue command. Survey modalities explored both natural and social landscapes allowing for the mapping of India and identification of archeological sites along with their relation to neighboring populations (Cohn 7). Enumerative modalities created census projects requiring the collection of each individual’s basic information such as age, name and occupation. Musicological modalities were undertaken to understand culture through study of arts, architecture, scripts, texts, etc. Similarly, surveillance modalities gathered information on potential criminals in order to establish a system of law and order.

Keywords:

1. Investigative Modality: The process of acquiring and then transforming information into various applications of knowledge in the forms of encyclopedias, historical contexts, statistical reports, etc.
2. Ontology: The study of existence in nature and the relation of beings.
3. Sanskrit: An ancient and religious literary language of India. Predominately spoken in Northern India and used for classical songwriting and poems.
4. Mela: A fair or hindu festival

Argument:

“The theater of power was managed by specialists (priests and ritual preceptors, historians and bards, artists and artisans) who maintained the various forms of knowledge required. From the eighteenth century onward, European states increasingly made their power visible not only through ritual performance and dramatic display, but through the gradual extension of ‘officializing’ procedures that established and extended their capacity in many areas. They took control by defining and classifying space,” by dominating all spheres of life and society (Cohn 3).

Evidence:

Cohn’s extensive research to support his claims involves historical data based on past events, public records and published documentations. Cohn makes reference to “enquiries,” a series of questions once asked by the British to determine how “revenue was assessed and collected” in India, as a form of historical modality (Cohn 5). Additionally, Cohn draws upon the travel accounts of British explorers and survey entries/projects undertaken by British engineers and archeologists alike. Cohn also draws support for his claims of “Britain’s civilizing mission in India” through the “major historical writings of Alexander Dow, Robert Orme, Charles Grant, Mark Wilks, James Mill, and James Tod,” (Cohn 6). These forms of evidence are highly factual and its contents are agreed upon within the historical community thus proving its reliability.

Historiographical Debate:

While Cohn does not explicitly address the work of other scholars, he does Cohn draw upon the major historical writings of Alexander Dow, Robert Orme, Charles Grant, Mark Wilks, James Mill, and James Tod as supporting the notion of the British mission to acquire all sorts of information to ultimately dominate and civilize India’s spheres of life and society.

Contribution to Our Understanding of Colonial Rule:

My initial understanding of colonial rule was that it was an ordeal of manpower and military strategy. A superior state dominated and colonized unrivaled territories and peoples. This superior state was superior due to technological advances in warfare, abundance of resources and high economic development. Upon reading this brief introduction of British colonial rule offered by Cohn, I have grown increasingly aware of the complexities of colonial rule. This introduction explained as to how colonial rule was established and maintained over long periods of time. Information was the key. Information was ever so important then as it is today. The British gathered and applied information in a manipulative manner to garner control of India. As Cohn writes, the British defined the “epistemological space” of Indians (Cohn 4). It took the collective efforts of individuals of all backgrounds, not just the military. Additionally, I thought it was interesting of Cohn to note that state building took place mutually between rulers and colonies. It had been my assumption that this occurred exclusively to those colonized.