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Category Archives: 1953-1960
supreme court ruling segregation on public transportation unconstitutional
The single most important change between 1953 and 1960 was when the supreme court ruled that segregation on public transportation unconstitutional.
In December 1955, Rosa Parks,a seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama,refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white commuter got arrested. Her arrest spurred an unprecedented year long bus boycott; the Montgomery bus boycott emboldened the movement for racial justice led by a young pastor named Martin Luther King Jr. The movement aims was t0 denounce the injustice ,inequality and oppression that the colored people endured in the deep south.
[kml_flashembed movie="http://www.youtube.com/v/jJ1OO5iBWCQ" width="425" height="350" wmode="transparent" /]
Little Rock Nine
50 years ago nine couragoeus high school students changed the USA. One simple step towards inequality turned a segregated naition upside down on September of 1957.
On September 2, the night before school was to start, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out the state’s National Guard to surround Little Rock Central High School and prevent any black students from entering in order to protect citizens and property from possible violence by protesters he claimed were headed in caravans toward Little Rock.
A federal judge granted an injunction against the Governor’s use of National Guard troops to prevent integration and they were withdrawn on September 20.
When school resumed on Monday, September 23, Central High was surrounded by Little Rock policemen. About 1,000 people gathered in front of the school. The police escorted the nine black students to a side door where they quietly entered the building as classes were to begin. When the mob learned the blacks were inside, they began to challenge the police and surge toward the school with shouts and threats. Fearful the police would be unable to control the crowd, the school administration moved the black students out a side door before noon.
As Little Rock experienced their first year as a segregated school these nine African American students took the heat, insults, and abuse from their white peers. This event was one of the most important events in the civil rights moivement. Here at Little Rock, you had a state fighting against federal authority, national guard troopers facing professional paratroopers and a governor against a president.
This was an incredible step towards integration and althoguh it took many more years of hardships we always have to start somewhere. We have to stand up for what we believe and stand on our grounds in order to get heard. [kml_flashembed movie="http://www.youtube.com/v/1kbawIm1SXY" width="425" height="350" wmode="transparent" /]
1954 Legal Ruling a Major Victory in U.S. Civil Rights Movement
In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that establishment of separate public schools for black and white students is inherently unequal and therefore unconstitutional.
Mrs. Pinkston enrolls 2nd and 3rd graders in the newly integrated classes at a school in Springer, Oklahoma, August 29, 1958. (© AP Images)
Brown v. Board of Education extended federal power to education, an area traditionally controlled by states and localities. The decision also signaled a new determination to interpret more broadly the U.S. Constitution’s promise of equality before the law and began an era of federal intervention to defend and guarantee the civil rights of all Americans.
The Supreme Court on May 17, 1954, issued a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren. Where previous decisions narrowly interpreted the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which forbade states from denying equal protection under law due to race, the Brown court looked instead to the impact of segregation. As Warren wrote:
“[T]o separate them [black schoolchildren] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone. … Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to retard the educational and mental development of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits which they would receive in a racially integrated school system.”
The court concluded “that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore we hold that the plaintiffs … [have been] deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment.”
Source: America.gov
The Birth of Consumerism – Loss of economic freedom?
The 1950s marked the beginning of a cultural change called consumerism. The new culture convinced Americans the need to buy new homes, cars, appliances, credit-cards and even succeeded in redefining ‘freedom’. From the pre-world war meaning of freedom, which was to starting to focus on anti-segregation policies, the meaning of freedom shifted to consumption. Foner does not go into much detail but does make it a point to mention that this new idea of consumerism, being the goal of freedom, resulted in American’s being comfortable with living in never-ending debt.
I believe Foner is right in that redefining freedom; consumerism began an a culture Americans are still struggling to deal with. Consumers in American to this day live under the pretense that comfortable means ‘buying more than you can afford’. Although consumerism has succeeded in redefining freedom, it has failed to redefined what the realities of such life-styles are. The fact that debt became a part of life ‘comfortable to live with’ is shocking. As a result we live in a country that is experiencing an economic recession, loss of jobs, a growing national debt and increasing deficit in international trade. Foner even mentions that the goal of women obtaining jobs was not to help the family out of poverty rather to promote the ‘family’s middle-class-lifestyle’. A life-style that put more families in debt. Of course there are exceptions to all this and the middle-class ‘revolution’ did promote better living conditions in America. But it has come at a cost the US is still struggling to deal with – an ever expanding national debt. I fail to see the freedom or comfort of consumerism because reality says otherwise.
National and Individual Debt Clock
1954-Segregation Ruled to be Illegal
1954-Segregation becomes illegal in the U.S. due to Brown v.Board of Ed
Approximately half a century before, in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, the Supreme Court ruled that the belief ‘separate but equal’ was just. However, on May 17, 1954, the ‘separate but equal’ belief which was in essence segregation, was ruled to be illegal.
The ruling on May 17, 1954 for segregation to be ‘“inherently unequal’” was largely due to the case of Brown v. Board of Education. The case was started due to a little girl Linda Brown in Topeka, Kansas, not being able to attend a nearby all white-school. Hence, Brown’s family and supporters brought suit against the board of education, and it was later deemed that ‘separate but equal’ was unjust. The case for segregation to be unfair was greatly supported by two educational psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark, who provided evidence that children at a very small age became habituated to dislike colored people due to segregation. Hence, their evidence allowed the Supreme Court to rule an end to the belief of a justified ‘separate but equal’ society.
The significance of the 1954 Segregations Laws ruled to be illegal was greatly due to the Brown v. Board of Ed case. Although segregation was ruled illegal, it took many years afterwards for the Civil Rights Movement to see victory. Nevertheless, the 1954 rulings for segregation to be eliminated was a great stride for the Civil Rights Movement which helped lead to further subsequent successes.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTGHLdr-iak
The first Fast Food Franchise McDonald’s
The golden age (1953-1960) of the American society is characterized by its material abundance of merchandise. The word “freedom” changes its meaning to the freedom to choose from a variety of products. The new way of thinking emerged with the expansion of suburban living and having luxury things as necessities of everyday life. As some historians believe at that point the ideology had died and the new era of consumption and capitalism started. Owning a car transformed American travel habits; it symbolized the freedom of mobility and led to construction of the entertainment enterprises and eating establishments on the altered landscape.
As an example the first McDonald’s restaurant opened in 1955 in Illinois. The founders were two brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald who created their famous logo (an overlapping letter “M”). McDonald’s introduced the speedy food service system which led to its worldwide expansion and its famous franchise by another corporate founder Ray Kroc. McDonald’s was the first restaurant to offer drive though food service. But over the years the fast food chain has become a target of health issues that contribute to obesity and heart diseases among the population.
Nevertheless McDonald’s has certainly become the symbol of globalization and the American way of life of comfort and affordability. I consider the creation of McDonald’s an important change in the american nutrition sphere that has tremendously affected millions of citizens who suffer from overweight and see fast food as the only diet
Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on public bus in Montgomery, Alabama
On December 1, 1955 African American Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger. She was arrested by police and charged violating the part of the Montgomery City code that dealt with segregation law, even though she had not technically violated the law. Rosa was later bailed out of jail by Edgar Nixon, president of NAACP.
After her arrest, Montgomery blacks announced boycott of the buses. The boycott was led by the president of Montgomery Improvement Association, young Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Under his leadership, the Montgomery bus boycott had lasted 381 days. The Supreme Court ruled in November 1956 that segregation on transportation was unconstitutional.
The Rosa Parks incident sparks African American’s quest for freedom and equality. It is not only a single history event. Through her arrest, the Montgomery blacks under the leading of NAACP and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. united other southern states’ blacks to protest segregation policy. The success from the Supreme court’s ruling gives MLK a new way to fight for desegregation, that is non-violence movement. MLK distinguishes himself in this boycott. More blacks follow him and it begins MLK’s rise to battle for the civil rights.
This image is from http://www.grandtimes.com/rosa.html
Technology history
In class we mentioned that history can be classified into different ways; political, economic, social, military, cultural, and to some extent legal. I would like to include technological history as one of these categories. Technological change has been going around throughout history, from the creation of the wheel to the last couple of years, in which the growth rate of technology has grown exponentially.
Taken from the IBM website, IBM introduced the first magnetic hard disk for data storage which was called RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) in 1956. The hard disk stores roughly 2,000 bits of data per square inch. For just one megabyte, it could cost as much as $10,000. Today, the cost of storing one megabyte is around 10 cents. While 2,000 bits of data is miniscule in todays standards, it was a major breakthrough at the time. We can say that this was the beginning of the advancement of computer technology today. 
The Golden Age
The rising popularity of TV in 1953
Between 1953 and 1960, there was an important change called the “golden age”. It was a period of peace, harmony, stability and prosperity. Most Americans, during the golden age lived better than their parents and grandparents in areas such as housing, income, education, diet and recreation. Numerous innovations also came into widespread use in these years, transforming Americans daily lives. These innovations include television, automatic dishwashers, inexpensive long distance telephone calls, home air conditioning and jet air travel. Moreover, services like electricity, central heating and indoor plumbing that only the rich had enjoyed has now became features of ordinary citizens.
An event that was responsible for this change in the golden age was the ‘Cold War”. This is the term used to describe the relationship between America and the Soviet Union. Neither side ever fought the other but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using client States who bought for their beliefs on their behalf. This resulted into the golden age because great tasks were accomplished and mankind lived better lives.
Posted in 1953-1960, June 15 assignment
Tagged Cold War, Golden Age, Innovations, Soviet Union
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Economic Freedom of the 1950s
American society and culture of the 1950s was dominated by consumer driven values. These values are heavily influenced by the economic prosperity experienced in the 50s. The United States was still seen as the world’s dominant industrial power. The steel, automobile, and aircraft industry products were the most sought after in both domestic and international markets. The government also supported western state economies by issuing contracts for numerous military weapons due to the Cold War.
Jobs in the service sector also grew and because the economy was growing so rapidly, wages and benefits rose in parallel. There were relatively few strikes, high employment, and low inflation. Americans now had more residual income to spend on themselves. Credit cards and overall credit was also much easier to obtain. Jack Straus said, “The luxuries of today are the necessities of tomorrow.” Luxuries such as cars, air conditioning, dishwashers, and central heating were all becoming common items in households of the 1950s. Discount stores, shopping malls, and fast-food restaurants were also common.
The spending habits of Americans in the 1950s was similar to the spending habits of the 1920s. I believe the change in values was a result of the end of World War II. The 1950s represented the end of the Great Depression and War eras in which many items were scarce and many sacrifices had to be made. The 1950s can be categorized as a period of economic freedom, a freedom not experienced since roaring 20s.
Posted in 1953-1960, Economic History, June 15 assignment
Tagged consumerism, economic freedom, prosperity
1 Comment
