The Federal Highway Act 1956

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Wu

The Federal Highway Act or National Interstate and Defense Highways was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956.  It allocated $25 billion dollars for the construction of  41,000 miles of interstate highway over a 20 year time frame.  President Eisenhower adamantly supported The Federal Highway Act mainly due to his experiences as an Army officer during the U.S. Army’s first Transcontinental Motor Convoy across the United States on the Lincoln Highway in 1919.  The purpose of the convoy was to dramatize the need for better interstate highways for sake of national defense.  Eisenhower argued that troops needed to be able to move cross country in a timely fashion if America was ever attacked.  After the completion of the highways, the cross country travel time of the convoy in 1919 was cut down to 2 weeks from 2 months.

The highways also resulted in an increase in suburbanization of America.  The expanded roadway infrastructure made commutes between urban cities to suburbs possible and much quicker.  The highways also resulted in much economical benefits for America.  It connected cities all across America, becoming the link for interstate commerce to this day.  America’s economic strength wouldn’t be where it is if it weren’t for The Federal Highway Act.

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Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Barry

The Federal-Aid Highway Act was the creation of the Interstate system.  It would connect each state through main, central roads that were centrally located.

President Eisenhower was quoted as saying, “Together, the united forces of our communication and transportation systems are dynamic elements in the very name we bear – United States. Without them, we would be a mere alliance of many separate parts.”  The Interstate system would be an efficient way to intertwine the individual United States into the whole.

This was a very important point of the 50’s.  Not only was it the largest public project in American History up to this point,  it was an expression of the longing for unity throughout the country.  This was also coming at a time when African-American equality protests were on the rise.  Everyone desired a sense of alliance and unification, whether it be in their own village or countrywide.

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supreme court ruling segregation on public transportation unconstitutional

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Ndiaga

The single most important change between 1953 and 1960 was when the supreme  court ruled that segregation on public transportation unconstitutional.

In December 1955, Rosa Parks,a seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama,refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white commuter got arrested. Her arrest spurred an unprecedented year long bus boycott; the Montgomery bus boycott emboldened the movement for racial justice led by a young pastor named Martin Luther King Jr. The movement aims was t0 denounce the injustice ,inequality and oppression that the colored people endured in the deep south.

[kml_flashembed movie="http://www.youtube.com/v/jJ1OO5iBWCQ" width="425" height="350" wmode="transparent" /]

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Little Rock Nine

Posted on June 15, 2010 by wrosas

50 years ago nine couragoeus high school students changed the USA. One simple step towards inequality turned a segregated naition upside down on September of 1957.

On September 2, the night before school was to start, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out the state’s National Guard to surround Little Rock Central High School and prevent any black students from entering in order to protect citizens and property from possible violence by protesters he claimed were headed in caravans toward Little Rock.

A federal judge granted an injunction against the Governor’s use of National Guard troops to prevent integration and they were withdrawn on September 20.

When school resumed on Monday, September 23, Central High was surrounded by Little Rock policemen. About 1,000 people gathered in front of the school. The police escorted the nine black students to a side door where they quietly entered the building as classes were to begin. When the mob learned the blacks were inside, they began to challenge the police and surge toward the school with shouts and threats. Fearful the police would be unable to control the crowd, the school administration moved the black students out a side door before noon.

As Little Rock experienced their first year as a segregated school these nine African American students took the heat, insults, and abuse from their white peers. This event was one of the most important events in the civil rights moivement. Here at Little Rock, you had a state fighting against federal authority, national guard troopers facing professional paratroopers and a governor against a president.

This was an incredible step towards integration and althoguh it took many more years of hardships we always have to start somewhere. We have to stand up for what we believe and stand on our grounds in order to get heard. [kml_flashembed movie="http://www.youtube.com/v/1kbawIm1SXY" width="425" height="350" wmode="transparent" /]

Posted in 1953-1960, Cultural History, June 15 assignment, Political history, Social History | Tagged , , , , , | 5 Comments

1954 Legal Ruling a Major Victory in U.S. Civil Rights Movement

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Ashraf Talukder

 In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that establishment of separate public schools for black and white students is inherently unequal and therefore unconstitutional. 

Mrs. Pinkston enrolls 2nd and 3rd graders in the newly integrated classes at a school in Springer, Oklahoma, August 29, 1958. (© AP Images)

Brown v. Board of Education extended federal power to education, an area traditionally controlled by states and localities. The decision also signaled a new determination to interpret more broadly the U.S. Constitution’s promise of equality before the law and began an era of federal intervention to defend and guarantee the civil rights of all Americans. 

The Supreme Court on May 17, 1954, issued a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren. Where previous decisions narrowly interpreted the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which forbade states from denying equal protection under law due to race, the Brown court looked instead to the impact of segregation. As Warren wrote: 

“[T]o separate them [black schoolchildren] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone. … Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to retard the educational and mental development of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits which they would receive in a racially integrated school system.” 

The court concluded “that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore we hold that the plaintiffs … [have been] deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment.” 

 Source: America.gov

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The Birth of Consumerism – Loss of economic freedom?

Posted on June 15, 2010 by David

The 1950s marked the beginning of a cultural change called consumerism. The new culture convinced Americans the need to buy new homes, cars, appliances, credit-cards and even succeeded in redefining ‘freedom’. From the pre-world war meaning of freedom, which was to starting to focus on anti-segregation policies, the meaning of freedom shifted to consumption. Foner does not go into much detail but does make it a point to mention that this new idea of consumerism, being the goal of freedom, resulted in American’s being comfortable with living in never-ending debt.

I believe Foner is right in that redefining freedom; consumerism began an a culture Americans are still struggling to deal with. Consumers in American to this day live under the pretense that comfortable means ‘buying more than you can afford’. Although consumerism has succeeded in redefining freedom, it has failed to redefined what the realities of such life-styles are. The fact that debt became a part of life ‘comfortable to live with’ is shocking. As a result we live in a country that is experiencing an economic recession, loss of jobs, a growing national debt and increasing deficit in international trade. Foner even mentions that the goal of women obtaining jobs was not to help the family out of poverty rather to promote the ‘family’s middle-class-lifestyle’. A life-style that put more families in debt. Of course there are exceptions to all this and the middle-class ‘revolution’ did promote better living conditions in America. But it has come at a cost the US is still struggling to deal with – an ever expanding national debt. I fail to see the freedom or comfort of consumerism because reality says otherwise.

National and Individual Debt Clock

Posted in 1953-1960, Cultural History, Economic History, Social History, Uncategorized | 10 Comments

1954-Segregation Ruled to be Illegal

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Victor

1954-Segregation becomes illegal in the U.S. due to Brown v.Board of Ed

Approximately half a century before, in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, the Supreme Court ruled that the belief ‘separate but equal’ was just. However, on May 17, 1954, the ‘separate but equal’ belief which was in essence segregation, was ruled to be illegal.

The ruling on May 17, 1954 for segregation to be ‘“inherently unequal’” was largely due to the case of Brown v. Board of Education. The case was started due to a little girl Linda Brown in Topeka, Kansas, not being able to attend a nearby all white-school. Hence, Brown’s family and supporters brought suit against the board of education, and it was later deemed that ‘separate but equal’ was unjust. The case for segregation to be unfair was greatly supported by two educational psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark, who provided evidence that children at a very small age became habituated to dislike colored people due to segregation. Hence, their evidence allowed the Supreme Court to rule an end to the belief of a justified ‘separate but equal’ society.

The significance of the 1954 Segregations Laws ruled to be illegal was greatly due to the Brown v. Board of Ed case. Although segregation was ruled illegal, it took many years afterwards for the Civil Rights Movement to see victory. Nevertheless, the 1954 rulings for segregation to be eliminated was a great stride for the Civil Rights Movement which helped lead to further subsequent successes.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTGHLdr-iak

Posted in 1953-1960 | 1 Comment

The first Fast Food Franchise McDonald’s

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Yana

The golden age (1953-1960) of the American society is characterized by its material abundance of merchandise. The word “freedom” changes its meaning to the freedom to choose from a variety of products. The new way of thinking emerged with the expansion of suburban living and having luxury things as necessities of everyday life. As some historians believe at that point the ideology had died and the new era of consumption and capitalism started. Owning a car transformed American travel habits; it symbolized the freedom of mobility and led to construction of the entertainment enterprises and eating establishments on the altered landscape.

As an example the first McDonald’s restaurant opened in 1955 in Illinois. The founders were two brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald who created their famous logo (an overlapping letter “M”). McDonald’s introduced the speedy food service system which led to its worldwide expansion and its famous franchise by another corporate founder Ray Kroc. McDonald’s was the first restaurant to offer drive though food service. But over the years the fast food chain has become a target of health issues that contribute to obesity and heart diseases among the population.

Nevertheless McDonald’s has certainly become the symbol of globalization and the American way of life of comfort and affordability. I consider the creation of McDonald’s an important change in the american nutrition sphere that has tremendously affected millions of citizens who suffer from overweight and see fast food as the only diet

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Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on public bus in Montgomery, Alabama

Posted on June 15, 2010 by Jing

On December 1, 1955 African American Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger. She was arrested by police and charged violating the part of the Montgomery City code that dealt with segregation law, even though she had not technically violated the law. Rosa was later bailed out of jail by Edgar Nixon, president of NAACP. 

After her arrest, Montgomery blacks announced boycott of the buses. The boycott was led by the president of Montgomery Improvement Association, young Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Under his leadership, the Montgomery bus boycott had lasted 381 days. The Supreme Court ruled in November 1956 that segregation on transportation was unconstitutional.

The Rosa Parks incident sparks African American’s quest for freedom and equality. It is not only a single history event. Through her arrest, the Montgomery blacks under the leading of NAACP and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. united other southern states’ blacks to protest segregation policy. The success from the Supreme court’s ruling gives MLK a new way to fight for desegregation, that is non-violence movement. MLK distinguishes himself in this boycott. More blacks follow him and it begins MLK’s rise to battle for the civil rights.

This image is from http://www.grandtimes.com/rosa.html

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Technology history

Posted on June 14, 2010 by Bhaskara

In class we mentioned that history can be classified into different ways; political, economic, social, military, cultural, and to some extent legal.  I would like to include technological history as one of these categories.  Technological change has been going around throughout history, from the creation of the wheel to the last couple of years, in which the growth rate of technology has grown exponentially.

Taken from the IBM website,  IBM introduced the first magnetic hard disk for data storage which was called RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) in 1956.  The hard disk stores roughly 2,000 bits of data per square inch.  For just one megabyte, it could cost as much as $10,000.  Today, the cost of storing one megabyte is around 10 cents.  While 2,000 bits of data is miniscule in todays standards, it was a major breakthrough at the time.  We can say that this was the beginning of the advancement of computer technology today.  

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