Slavery in Puerto Rico by the Numbers
Puerto Rico’s colonial society, although deeply entrenched in the institution of slavery, never had as high a percentage of enslaved people compared to other Caribbean islands like Cuba or Saint-Domingue (Haiti), where plantation economies were even more intensive.
By the early 19th century, enslaved Africans and their descendants made up about 11-15% of Puerto Rico’s population. This figure fluctuated depending on economic factors like the growth of sugar plantations, coffee production, and overall labor demands. For instance, in the mid-19th century, right before slavery was officially abolished in 1873, the enslaved population was estimated to be around 6% of the island’s total population, reflecting changes in labor structures and demographic shifts over time.
The number of free Black people increased during the 19th century due to manumission and legal frameworks that allowed enslaved people to earn their freedom. At the time of abolition, free Black people significantly outnumbered the enslaved Black population.
Bio
Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro is a Puerto Rican writer. She has published books that promote the discussion of Afro-identity and sexual diversity. She is also the founder and chair of Ancestral Black Women, created in response to UNESCO’s call to celebrate the International Decade for People of African Descent. In 2015, the UN invited her to speak about women, slavery, and creativity as part of the Remembering Slavery Program.
Her short story collection Las Negras won the 2013 National Short Story Prize from the PEN Club of Puerto Rico and explores the limits of the development of female characters who challenge hierarchies of colonial power.
The stories from Negras, “Wanwe,” “Midwives,” and “Arrowhead” pay attention to the violence of the Atlantic slave trade, from the capture in Africa to the forced labor in Puerto Rico and the colonial punishments against rebellious women. Although slavery is the backdrop of the collection, Arroyo Pizarro emphasizes the inner world, brilliant skills, and humanity of her enslaved protagonists.
“Arrowhead” portrays the exploitation endured by enslaved women, emphasizing that slavery did not strip them of their humanity. Enslaved Africans were manipulated, their desires exploited, and they were subjected to terror. Tshanwe’s experiences demonstrate how slave traders relied on the humanity of their captives to make the cruelty they inflicted significant. Arroyo Pizarro uses her narratives to depict acts of rebellion and survival against these atrocities.
Presentation:
Discussion Questions
.Analyze how and why Arroyo Pizarro presents sexual labor in “Arrowhead.”
.In what ways does Arroyo Pizarro present patriarchal/colonial violence?
.Why do you think the author paid attention to the linguistic barriers at the plantation?
.What is the relevance of the Namaqua women warriors in the story?
.How do you interpret the ending? Examine different connotations, meanings, and transformations of the “arrowhead.”
Creative Writing Exercise
Write a short poem based on the perspective of one of Arroyo Pizarro’s characters. Emphasize in the poem how the character you choose reflects on slavery and, if applicable, how they maintain dignity while facing oppression.
II. Enslaved Women and Subversion: the Violence of Turbulent Women
Herstorian, activist, educator, and founding member of the Organisation of Women of African and Asian Descent (OWAAD), Stella Dadzie’s book A Kick in the Belly: Women, Slavery, and Resistance delves into the nature, legacy, and impacts of African enslavement. She examines, in particular, how women disrupted the trade and forced labor economies in Africa and the Caribbean.
How did enslaved women in the Caribbean defy, rebel, and subvert exploitation?
In her chapter, Stella Dadzie presents many cases in which enslaved women presented opposition to slavery, subverted plantation hierarchies, resisted labor exploitation, and worked toward manumission (buying their freedom). Dadzie also looks at escapes, conspirations, and insurrections.
Lastly, she examines how many enslaved women transmitted culture and spiritual and healing rituals. She considers these practices as forms of rebellion, too, because colonial and plantation systems were designed to discourage or entirely eliminate African and Afro-descendants’ cultural knowledge.
Some examples from Dadzie’s chapter:
.refusing to do assigned tasks or going to strike (114-5)
.disobedience and negligence (119-21)
.physical or psychological retaliation (116)
.using domestic intimacy and sexual labor as a way to gain freedom (118-9)
.escapes (122-4)
.plotting and instigating rebellions (124-8)
.killing and poisoning their enslavers and overseers (128-30)
.learning new languages and European/colonial cultural practices while preserving theirs (130-2)
Group Discussion: chain reactions
Briefly compare and discuss examples of rebellion from Dadzie’s text and the short story we read.
Did you find a form of resistance that surprised you, or you didn’t know about it?