Brazil, declaring their independence in 1822, was one of the last countries to abolish slavery in 1888. The image dates back to 1824, two years after Brazil’s independence and yet slavery was still present. With that, this illustration depicts a slave market in Rio de Jainero where black slaves are sitting and children are being sold to their soon to be white owners. One of the children is being held aggressively by a man in which the buyer is seen pointing at them as he chooses the child to buy. To the right of this, is another man picking out a slave who is also being held with a hand on their head showing the mistreatment and inhumanity and how they were only seen as property. While the men are dressed respectfully, the slaves and children are dressed in cloths and not proper clothing. Once again, this depicts inhumanity and how they are seen as property even after Brazil was declared independent.

In 1808, Emperor João VI moved the royal court to Rio de Janeiro making the city the “official center of the Empire” that led to an increase of trade (Dawson 14). With the Spanish intrroducting slavery into the New World (Townsend 299), slavery was important for Brazil as it was beneficial to their economy. As other countries were declaring their independence and abolishing slavery, Pedro I of Brazil, son of Emperor João VI, had declared independence and established a constitutional monarchy which saved slavery (Dawson 15). As slavery was saved due to the benefits like the agricultural economy, citizens had acknowledged that slavery had to be present.

The correlation between the image of Slave Market at Rio Janeiro and the events that eventually led to the independence of Brazil is the drawing depicting the auction between slaves and buyers and how declaring indepdence did not abolish slavery as citizens saw the benefits slavery had.

Works Cited

Dawson, Alexander S. “Independence Narratives, Past and Present.” Latin America since Independence: A History with Primary Sources, Routledge, 2022. 

Townsend, Camilla. “Angela Batallas: A Fight for Freedom in Guayaquil.” The Human Tradition in Colonial Latin America, edited by Kenneth J. Andrien, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 2013. 

The source provided is an image of the La Virgen de Guadalupe which is considered a very prominent figure in Mexico to this day. This importance of the image of La Virgen de Guadalupe dates back to the early 16th century as Dawson notes that a “woven surface image of the Virgin Guadalupe initially appears in 1531”(Dawson 2022, 117). According to Historian Alexander Dawson when Latin Americans rallied to a “flag of rebellion”, Mexicans would follow “the image of the Virgin Of Guadalupe” which gave those who followed the image a sense of “specificity” (Dawson 2022, 15). 

The image of La Virgin de Guadalupe was used as a means of motivation for rebellion by the likes of Father Miguel Hidalgo who is credited to have initiated the “Mexican movement for independence”. The events of Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”) in September of 1810 were a step in the right direction to signify that Mexico wanted to end Spanish rule on their land. Miguel Hidalgo was later on “executed by a firing squad” and another father would take his role in the struggle for Mexican independence who is known as Father Jose Maria Morelos. 

What is also important to know is the premise that both people who were catalysts for Mexican independence were priests. In the late 18th century the catholic church was considered the “social glue” in the colonies and by this, it meant that they adhered to everything going on regarding the community and other pressing matters that would appear at hand. So when thinking that out of all the community members to see priests taking a step back from being a social glue to them being leaders in change, the fight for independence is quite a turnover of things and interesting to see how it unfolds. Since in Spain the church has a big influence on how things were administered back in the late eighteenth century the change in different parts of the world comes down to external variables. Dawson notes that one factor that led to this change was the introduction of “enlightened thinkers” and their work. As more ideas spread about their way of thinking it was inevitable that their ideologies would clash with those of traditionalists (Dawson 2022, 14).

Thereafter Morelos would continue his mission of obtaining Mexican independence as he would focus on “social equality among Mexicans” which would give him a following to move with his plans (Wood and Rose Alexander 2019, 34). In doing so he also created what is known as “The Sentiments of the Nation ” which are principles for governing the nation as the articles written could be considered as the constitution for the nation. In one of the articles specifically article nineteen, Morelos establishes that “12 December” be “the day of Our Lady of Guadalupe” as she is referred to as the “patron saint of our liberty” and that this day would be commemorated as a holiday (Wood and Alexander 2019, 37). To this day Mexico has great honor and respect toward the image of the La Virgen de Guadalupe and the tradition of celebrating her day on the twelfth of December continues which goes to demonstrate the influence of this image in the country of Mexico from its initial origins in the early sixteenth century

Works Cited

Dawson , Alexander. “Independence Narratives, Past Independence Narratives, 1 Past and Present.” Latin America since Independence , Routledge , New York, NY, 2022.

Wood, James A., and Anna Rose Alexander . “Independence.” Problems in Modern Latin American History : Sources and Interpretations, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2019.

https://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/JCB~1~1~6789~10580004:Verdadero-Retrato-de-la-milagros-Im?sort=image_date%2Csubject_groups&qvq=q:la%20virgen%20de%20guadalupe;sort:image_date%2Csubject_groups;lc:JCB~1~1&mi=1&trs=4

The miasma of chaos and confusion gripped the air of Lisbon. Caravans of soon-to-be refugees piled on top of one another on the streets of Belém, reducing once “illustrious members of Portuguese society” to a blob of despair and desperation. 

The engraved illustration, dated to 1819, depicts the Portuguese prince regent Dom Joãn VI and his family fleeing the French invasion of Portugal on November 27, 1807. As portrayed in the illustration, a large caravan of coaches sits on the right side of the image. According to historian Kirsten Schultz, almost seven hundred coaches brought the royal family and their subjects to the harbor of Belém. An impressive armada of people hoping to join the royal family (House of Braganza) on their journey to Brazil, the soon-to-be de facto capital of the Portuguese Empire. Some were even desperate enough to test their luck and paddle their way onto a ship, only to be met with water filling their lungs and drowning, as one observer noted. [1]

We can assume the gentleman with the bright white trousers in the near center of the image is the prince regent, Dom Joãn VI, himself, almost standing out unfazed by the chaos surrounding him. His son, Pedro, may also be depicted among the crowd. Only nine years old when they arrived in Brazil, he would later become a key figure in the independence of Brazil. [2]

Thirty ships disembarked on their journey with the help of the British Royal Navy. Sailing past the tower of Belém, which could be seen in the background of the engraving. The journey was not one of luxury one would expect from those close to the royal family but one of suffering and saudade (nostalgic longing). The tropical haze left a toll on the new arrivals, as one royal archivist, Luiz Marrócos, recalls. Churches “continually announcing deaths” and burying 300 people native to Lisbon. [3] While those exiled from Lisbon had a deep hatred of living in Rio de Janeiro, those Brazilian-born saw the arrival of Dom Joãn VI as “the Epoch of Happiness.” According to cleric Luiz Gonçalves dos Santos, the prince regent worked to rectify the problems seen within the colony, thus breaking the chain that many Brazilians believed they were bound to. A new level of prestige was brought upon the city with the formation of royal academies, a royal treasury, and a Bank of Brazil, putting into place an era of increased trade and prosperity. [4] What once went to Portugal was now coming into Brazil. Imports from all around the globe, from Africa to India and China, were going to the doorsteps of the ever-growing colony. 

The hasty retreat of the royal family to Brazil was just one of the many examples of the crises from the Napoleonic wars that catapulted Latin America into the era of independence—stripping away the illusion of needing a paternal overseer from across the sea. Declaring independence on November 7, 1822, Dom Pedro ushered in a relatively peaceful transition from colony to an independent kingdom. However, one devoid of liberal rhetoric due to Brazil’s dependence on slavery, something the liberal cortes, back in Portugal, were poised to abolish. [5]

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Works Cited:

Schultz, Kirsten. “Tropical Versailles.” In, Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations, edited by James A. Wood and Anna Rose Alexander, 16-21. 5th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.

Dawson, Alexander. Latin America since Independence a History with Primary Sources. Vol. 3, ROUTLEDGE, 2022.

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References:

[1] Schultz, “Tropical Versailles”, 44

[2] Schultz, “Tropical Versailles” 43 

[3] Schultz, “Tropical Versailles”, 45

[4] Schultz, “Tropical Versailles”, 47

[5] Dawson, Latin America since Independence a History with Primary Sources, 14-15 

The Haitian Revolution was a revolt against the French by the black slaves in hopes of being self-liberated and independent. Slaves were sent to Saint Domingue, which is now considered present-day Haiti, to be enslaved and forcefully work in sugar plantations. Also, slaves were forced to work under harsh conditions, and children were sold for profit. Most of the people in the country of Haiti were conflicted about governing the land. Due to the French Revolution, the Rights of Man were declared to create conflict with each caste system. The white slave owners were concerned about losing their property; meanwhile, the slaves wanted liberty. In the colony of Saint Domingue, enslaved black men were led by Toussaint L Overture to fight the French (Problems, 27). The revolution lasted from 1791 to 1804, which led to years of violence and gore. The French soldiers and civilians of St. Domingue fought a bloody war, being killed at gunpoint, lynched, beheaded, and even devoured by dogs. The image portrays three soldiers in the background hunting down black men at gunpoint. The image’s center point shows a man about to be devoured by starving dogs. These extreme forms of violence scared different countries and pushback different countries from revolting. The Haitian Revolution ultimately ended with the slaves being victorious. The revolution was later led by Jean Jacques Dessalines after the death of Toussaint L Overture. The country successfully became a country without slavery but was still under French rule. The French still demanded taxes and money from the colony, which led to the continuation of the revolution. The revolution continued, and Haiti successfully became independent by 1804.

Problems in Modern Latin American History : Sources and Interpretations, edited by James A. Wood, and Anna Rose Alexander, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/baruch/detail.action?docID=5743856.

As the leader of the first successful independence movement in Latin America, Toussaint Louverture is memorialized in this portrait titled as “Toussaint Louverture Chef des Noirs Insurgés de Saint Domingue,” collected by the John Carter Brown Archive of Early American Images. The portrait, included in a collection of portraits of generals during the French Revolution published in Paris around 1800, depicts Louverture on a horse, carrying a sword, wearing traditional French military attire, with fortifications and a ship behind him, representing his strong leadership of the Haitian Revolution, his inspiration from the French Revolution and his contributions to the formation of independence within Latin America.

As a French colony, Saint Domingue contained a vast population of enslaved Africans, that at its peak totaled at least half a million people, with a considerable population of free People of Color. Contributing 2/5 of the world’s sugar and 1/2 of the world’s coffee as part of the French empire, the colony and its people watched the Estates General of French Revolution dismiss their desires for emancipation and individual rights. As shown in the portrait of the revolutionary leader, not only does his uniform reveal French inspiration in what Louverture wore and how he led, but also represents the influenced rhetoric within Saint Domingue. Using language of republicanism, enslaved people and free People of Color advocated and fought for their own rights, using the French Revolution as its source. Mobilized and led by Toussaint Louverture, formerly enslaved people and initially fought for the French against the British and Spanish in exchange for freedom, but their efforts turned towards independence as threats of slavery loomed over them. Haitian independence was successfully declared, making Saint Domingue the second colony to rid itself of its former colonizer and the first to outlaw slavery. (Dawson, 12)

The results of Haiti were heard around the colonies. However, it did not immediately push the colonies toward independence. (Wood, 27) In fact, colonies only grew in fear of slave uprisings, inspiring planters to discipline enslaved people further. When the colonies began to entertain the idea of independence, Haiti inspired revolutionary leaders to consider slavery as part of their agenda. Enslaved people themselves used Haitian language of emancipation and rights to argue for their freedom. Enslaved people were not monolithic, however, as many chose to fight on behalf of the royalist army, in belief that the Spanish and the royalist army would reward their military efforts with emancipation. Juntas openly criticized slavery and banned the slave trade, with legal promises to phase slavery out of their regions. Liberal and now infamous revolutionary leaders, such as Francisco Miranda and Simon Bolivar, mobilized enslaved people to fight for independence, promising emancipation in return. (Dawson, 12)

The portrait of Louverture represents much more than a general on horseback. It displays a nation of formerly enslaved people courageous enough to fight against 3 dominant and colonial powers for their right to freedom. The painting reveals French republican influence on Saint Domingue, as well as the influence Haiti had on the Spanish colonies, as they showed the colonies how powerful people can be when they join together against colonialism. Through Haiti, liberals learned they were to confront the issue of slavery if they wanted to gain independence. Military leaders like Miranda and Bolivar followed Louverture in his tactics to mobilize enslaved people in their fight for political sovereignty. Haiti served as a model, like the portrait of Louverture, of what Spanish colonies were capable of if they incorporated everyone in their battle for self-rule.

Works Cited:

Dawson, Alexander. Latin America since Independence: A History with Primary Sources. 3^rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2022.

Wood, James A. and Anna Rose Alexander, editors. Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations. 5^th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.

The illustration here depicts a drawing of a native of Peru with a simple title, “Man of Peru”. The painting is of interest because it shows us an early depiction of what the natives of Peru were like and how “civilized folk” would have viewed these natives of Peru. This painting was found in a popular book in Venice at the time by author Vecellio in 1598. This book was about costumes, how the native Venetian dress, and clothing from ancient times. Looking at this illustration from the perspective of a city dweller of Venice in 1598 you would infer that the people in Peru are uncivilized and place themselves on a higher pedestal than someone living in Peru. This can help us today understand the social dilemmas of the past. 

The man in the photo is wearing a headband and a tunic that’s decorated with flowers and birds and a checker design. He has on his person a flask and either a spear or a farming tool. This painting is actually great because it shows how hard working a native of Peru is as seen by the mans large arms and muscular legs. But it also shows that the people of Peru have a sense of style and taste with the floral and checker design. As stated in the “Tupac Amaru Rebellion”, “Many Spaniards and Creoles scoffed at the notion of a “noble Indian” and despite business dealings and even friendship with him, wanted nothing to do with his political project.” Native Peruvians were looked down on during the time of Latin American colonialism.

The painting shows a great depiction of a native man of Peru that gives both a good image and a bad one. A great image because it shows that style, artistry, and strength of a native Peruvian. It is a bad image because it could give the inference to more advanced civilizations that Peruvians aren’t as developed because hard labor was seen as something that nobles did not do. If your only reference to a whole civilization is one image then your going to be biased based on that image as it ‘s your sole reference. As a Peruvian myself I am proud of this illustration because I believe it is accurate and flattering of a Peruvian. People in Latin America work hard to build their way of life and while not rich in material things they are rich in culture.

Works Cited

• Walker, Charles F. The Tupac Amaru Rebellion. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2016.