Author: Mark Rice

Post by Emma Ribette

This image title “Nigritae exhaustis venis metallicis consiciendo saccharo operam dare debent” is Latin and literally means “The blacks, having exhausted the metallic veins, must turn to the production of sugar”. It is an extract of Girolamo Benzino’s historical book from 1565. It is very representative of what colonialism was mainly about. The illustration shows enslaved Africans doing work related to sugar production, likely processing sugarcane.

The illustration seems to describe almost all the manual labor that is involved in the production of sugar, including harvesting or boiling the juice. The labor was long and those men were working in harsh conditions, they were dehumanized and treated as tools. There are various activities in the scene reflecting the labor-intensive nature of sugar processing. First, it shows the harvesting process, the slaves are depicted in dynamic postures cutting and carrying the canes, easily identified thanks to its long appearance. Near the center, they are feeding the canes into a large press operated by a manual turning mechanism to extract the juice. On the bottom left corner, the men are boiling the cane juice in a large cauldron to concentrate it into sugar. The slaves are shown stirring the boiling liquid, indicating the constant attention required for this step. In the background, there is more activity, including what looks like additional processing areas. This gives the impression of a large organized plantation setting.

In the illustration there is no depiction of the overseers or europeans. This could reflect the European perspective of seeing slaves as tools within an economic process rather than humans. Color is added selectively to enhance some features such as the flames or the press, but not the slaves themselves.

The title gives us a context, this an image from after the depletion of mineral resources such as gold and silver, when the labor force was redirected to other forms of production such as sugar when it suited the commercial interests. It reminds me of the discussion we had in class about sugar and coffee becoming trendy items among the European population. It shows how their needs and wants dictated the slaves’ lives.

In my opinion, the title frames the narrative from a European, colonialist perspective. It emphasizes economic activities and benefits without mentioning the human cost. The description of using slaves for sugar production as a practical and normal response to the exhaustion of mining resources normalizes the forced labor and suffering of those men, reflecting the colonial mindset that prioritizes profit over human dignity. The factual tone of the text conveys an acceptance of this economic transition, highlighting how such forms of oppression were normal and justified in European societies. This building in the background and the machinery such as the press for extracting sugarcane juice illustrate how European technological and economic structure were imposed on colonies, showing even more the European’s controlling role in the production process.

Post by Romario Lopez

The image shown above is not just a view of a beach in Buenos Aires, but a view of an important landmark in Latin American history. This image is the capital of Argentina, Buenos Aires, which was created by Giuseppe Erba Odescalchi and Paolo Fumagalli in 1821. But this would be 11 years after the start of Argentina’s independence.

This image is of Buenos Aires, this is where Argentina was invaded by the English. In 1806 the

English invaded Buenos Aires to take over the Falklands. The English wanted to take the

Falklands because the islands would give a really good strategic position to England’s naval

operations. The Spanish were going back and forth between Spain and Argentina while the

Spanish were gone the English invaded. While under the control of the Spanish leader, Rafael de Sobremonte, he had fled during this invasion, leaving the Argentinians vulnerable, or so they

thought. The Argentines rallied together and were on their own. They defended themselves and defeated the English. After realizing they could defend themselves on their own they promptly decided to go for independence. And in 1810 the Argentine for Independence began.

During this war, many important steps were being taken for Argentinian independence. In May

1810 the first independent Argentinian government was formed. Six years later and on 1816 July 9th, Argentina declared independence and is now their own country.

The war still isn’t finished but two years later, after 9,000 lives were lost the war has ended, in

1818 the war has officially ended. The image above shows the place where the idea of

Argentinian independence was born. This is a visual of where independence began.

Blog post by Yawen Chen

This Image depicts a man named Marcus Rainsford being sentenced to death by Louverture then to be postponed. It is assumed that he is a spy from Britain pretending to be an American. The image dates 1805. What stood out to me in this image was that an ethnic Haitian women shown empathy to white man of military status. What was Marcus a British man doing in Saint Domingue?  and what was the relationship and involvement of Britain? 

A brief recap

The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was a conflict that not only involved enslaved people in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) but also attracted the interests of foreign powers such as  Britain and Spain. Saint-Domingue was one of the richest colonies in the world due to its sugar and coffee plantations and probably the largest slave trade during this time period. It was heavily reliant on enslaved labor. The French Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality challenged enslaved people to revolt against their oppressors.

Britain’s involvement

As the French Revolution unfolded, Britain sought to weaken France and gain control of its lucrative colonies. Saint-Domingue was particularly attractive due to its economic value. In 1793, amidst the chaos of the French Revolution and the execution of Louis XVI, Britain invaded Saint-Domingue. The British aimed to take over the colony and its resources while France was preoccupied with internal strife and wars in Europe.

The British sought to re-establish the plantation system and maintain slavery, which contrasted with France’s abolition of slavery in 1794. France hoped to rally enslaved people to their cause so that theres one less problem to worry about. Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the Haitian revolution switched sides of the alliances. He shifted his support from the Spanish to French. (Spanish who also attempted to win the favor of Louverture in hoping to weaken the French). Then  he resisted the British’s similar attempts to control the colony. His leadership and military tactics effectively countered British forces. The British were unable to maintain control over Saint-Domingue due to resistance from Louverture’s troops. By 1798, British forces were largely expelled from the island. Then followed by Haiti’s independence in 1804, making it the first black-led republic in the world and a symbol of resistance against colonialism and slavery.

To answer the initial questions

It is that After the defeat of British army, Marcus was sent by Britain to recruit Haitians to be part of British army. As it was mostly dismissed that these colored men had the capacity to fight. Unlike other white militants, Marcus Rainsford acknowledges Louverture’s troops as intelligent and capable fighters, and he is supportive of their independence. It is natural that the Haitians are precautious of an enemy landing on their land once more as possible intent of re-establishing slavery. But the most prominent part to me is the empathy the people would have toward the country they have just fought; one militant’s respect shows to another.

Side note

A Timeline of events I Compelled as I researched on events surrounding this time.

1789- French revolution, French citizen was discontent of lavish spending of their king

1790 March 8 Decree, declared by Barnave to give colony autonomy but abandon the colonies from the French’s constitution and prosecute those who tempt to uprise against the slavery system. The free colored man had no input nor was it considered.

1791 Haitian revolution, start of rebellion led by  Toussaint Louverture

1793-Execution of Louis XVI , Britain invades Haiti. Seeks to control the most lucrative wealth generator from French. At the same time French was at war with Spain.  

1794 slavery were abolished in saint Domingue and all colonies under France. Toussaint Louverture turns on the Spanish who supported the free of colored cause in hoping to weaken France.

1795 Napolean returns France to restore order and later became king of France in 1804.

1802 Napolean ended 10-year war with Britain  

1803- Toussaint Louverture won the Haitian revolution

1804-  Haiti obtain independence

Citation

Image, “when under sentence of Death relieved by a benevolent Female of Colour.” Albion Press Printed: Published by James Cundee, Ivy-Lane, Paternoster-Row; and sold by C. Chapple, Pall Mall

Reading, Analysis of Fick, “The French Revolution in Saint Domingue,” by Carolyn E Fick (Pg53 Sugar plantation and slave trade), (Pg 65 Britain at war with Spain)

https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/4/oa_monograph/chapter/2278842 (page 5, Marcus Rainsford in St Domiangue)

JCB Archive of Early American Images, accession number 08378, Cerro de Potosí.

This image depicts Potosí, one of the most important mining centers in colonial Latin America. The archival description of the image indicates that it was created in 1609 during the height of the Andean mining boom. The image depicts several figures working in the mines on the large mountain looming over the city. It is likely that many of these laborers were indigenous subjects serving their required colonial mita. Historian Kris Lane defines the mita as, “an hispanicized revival of the Inka corvee, or mit’a (literally ‘turn’).[1] This mita labor required Spain’s indigenous subjects to provide much of the forced labor that extracted the valuable mineral weath from mines like Potosí.

At the foot of the mountain, we can observe a bustling colonial town. While Spain imposed strict restrictions on where different colonial castas (legal catagories of race) could live, nearly all colonial urban centers were key centers of trade and activity. In his study of Quito, another Andean commercial center, Lane discovered that several legal and economic loopholes in Spanish law permitted indigenous and mestizo women to have more agency than many of their European and North American peers in operating businesses and commercial agencies in urban centers.[2] One can assume that, like in Quito, many of Potosí’s taverns, inns, and markets were owned by women as well.

Several churches are depicted in the drawing of Potosí. This is unsurprising considering the prominent role the Catholic Church had in colonial Latin American society. It is possible that residents and laborers in Potosí relied on the Church and its priests for help and charity under difficult conditions. Manuel Abad y Queipo, a priest in Mexico who composed a detailed description of social conditions there in 1799, describe the Church as a key advocate for the poor against corrupt and abusive colonial officials. Abad y Queipo wrote that, “the parish priests and their deputies…dedicated solely to the spiritual service and temporal support of these wretched people, win [Indian and mestizo] affection, gratitude, and respect by their ministries and works.”[3]  However, it is important to note that Church officials could be just as corrupt as their government peers. Charles Walker has noted that conflicts between the interests of colonial official and the Church could also be commonplace and even sometimes set the stage for popular revolt like in the Tupac Amaru Rebellion.[4] It is also likely that many of Potosí’s residents had a more ambivalent relationship to the Church. Historia Matthew Restall argues that, despite converting to Catholicism, most indigenous communities in Spain’s colonies often continued pre-Hispanic traditions or combined their beliefs into Catholic religious practices.[5]

Works Cited:

Abad y Queipo, Manuel. “A Priest Reports on Social Conditions in Mexico.” In, Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Intepretations, edited by James A. Wood and Anna Rose Alexander, 16-21. 5^th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.

Lane, Kris. “Assessing Indian Labor in Quito.” In Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Intepretations, edited by James A. Wood and Anna Rose Alexander, 7-12. 5^th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.

Restall, Matthew. “The Myth of Completion.” In, Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Intepretations, edited by James A. Wood and Anna Rose Alexander, 21-25. 5^th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.

Walker, Charles F. The Tupac Amaru Rebellion. Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2014.

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Works Cited:

[1] Lane, “Assessing Indian Labor in Quito,” 11.

[2] Lane, “Assessing Indian Labor in Quito,” 9-10.

[3] Abad y Queipo, “A Priest Reports on Social Conditions in Mexico,” 18.

[4] Walker, Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 35-38.

[5] Restall, “The Myth of Completion,” 24-25.