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Publishing During Industrialization

History

The Victorian Era

The Industrial Revolution’s (1760-1840) impact regarding changes in society, economics, and politics results in an influx of writers, who responded to these rapid changes through different forms of literature, including essays, poems, plays, autobiographies, plays, journals, among several other publications to express their opinions.

During the Industrial Revolution, technological advancements began to dominate many industries. With the internal migration of citizens from outer suburbs and countrysides to the cities, writers became increasingly inspired by the state and changes of their current society, making for new ideas for novels and other forms of literature, ultimately using the revolution as a drive for new forms of literature to be created. However, writers were divided in opinion about the impact of the Industrial Revolution on publishing, with some expressing their content and inspirations for the change that new machines represented, and others being critical and openly rejecting the blatant exploitation of lower, middle, and working-class citizens that would be affected with the influx of technology.

“Oliver Twist.” by Biblioteca Rector Machado y Nuñez is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0.

A huge criticism came from Oliver Twist, a book written by Charles Dickens, which openly argued against the wealthy and their attitude towards the exploitation of the poor, resulting in workhouses being created after the passing of the Poor Law of 1835.

The Industrial Revolution amassed great wealth for the middle and upper classes but subjected the poor and working class to decreasing job opportunities and limited pay. Marx’s Das Kapital, written in 1867, responded to the crisis of the industrial revolutions and its impact on these lower classes. The Industrial Revolution had an immense impact on literature, including Modernism and Marxism. Urbanization skyrocketed as a result of the revolution, yet it was followed by an attitude of pessimism against the idea of technology and its advancements after World War I. As a direct result of the Industrial Revolution, people began to push back against tradition.

The Impact on Literature

The Industrial Revolution introduced hundreds of new words, concepts, and technology, all of which heavily impacted literature and the publishing industry. It influenced many literature movements and opened up a chasm of change within the industry. The revolution sparked concepts such as Romanticism, which was openly seen as a direct rejection of the rationalism of the Enlightenment, thus creating two separate yet equally used concepts that became a frequent foundation for literature. The impact of the revolution founded the term American realism, which emerged from the urbanization and industrialization of literature to explain the changes in American society as a result of the Industrial Revolution.

It was during the industrial revolution that inspired Charles Stanhope to create the first printing press. His innovative idea to switch from wood frames to iron made printing literature faster, increased durability, and allowed the sheets to be printed more largely than other printers.

Johannes Guttenberg (1440) invented the printing press which became important in the Holy Roman Empire. Friedrich-Auguste Gutenberg, a printer and goldsmith, created an efficient printing system at the time. However, technological advances and mechanical printing which allowed for mass communication debuted in the early 20th century. In addition to the introduction of a new and improved printing process, the importance of including the authors of these works became a prominent feature. The mass production of literature had a positive influence on adult literacy due to the increase in the production of books and other literary devices.

Books soon became a popular source of entertainment, education, and sources of opinion and discussion on important topics. The printing press played a big part in the Protestant Reformation and contributed greatly to the development of the democratic view (previously, the aristocratic views were the only source available through literature). During the Industrial Revolution, the rise of Romantic works became apparent, with authors like Wordsworth and Dickens’ writing literature that placed a heavy emphasis on the negative impacts that industrialization would have on humanity, including a detachment from human emotion and an increase of an asocial mindset, with technology becoming the forefront of human interaction.

Charles Dickens was the Industrial Revolution’s biggest critic, expressing his beliefs that industrialization was the cause of increased poverty and social injustices. Many of Dickens’ works included the conversation of the impact of industrialization on social class, arguing about the oppression against the poor class, and placing the middle class as the antagonist against them.

The Industrial Revolution, ironically, was inspired by a biography written by Elizabeth Gaskell. Her biography, a story about a girl named Margaret Hale, born in the country, who travels to a struggling industrial town, sparked the flame that soon became The Industrial Revolution. However, despite her biography being regarded as the inspiration behind industrialization, Elizabeth Gaskell was a critic against the revolution, as she believed that it led to social and economic injustices. In addition to being a social critic, she expressed her sensitivity to the changes in society that were being faced, including these feelings in many of her works.

Romanticism, the emphasis on nature and the country, can be traced back to 1978 in the lyric ballads of Mr. William Wordsworth. The discussion of nature and the country, although prominent in works of literature in the 18th century, also included discussions around mobility and development in urban settings.

Despite multiple criticisms from writers and authors alike, the Industrial Revolution is regarded as having an ultimately positive impact on the publishing industry. The introduction of industrialization inspired writers to incorporate these changes and progressions of society to be reflected in their literature, allowing for more flexibility in what was being written as opposed to the restrictive nature of literature being written only about nature (as it was in the era of Romanticism).

The Industrial Revolution introduced hundreds of new words that were added to the English language as a result of the progression of technological advancements. A new genre of literature also emerged from the revolution, known as industrial fiction.

Oldest Surviving Papyrus Scroll

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Papyrus is the name of both the writing and the plant used to make the material of the papyrus paper. The oldest written preserved papyrus is the Diary of Merer which was written over 4,500 years ago. Papyrus was used until the 11th century, even as paper became more popular.

Photo by Helen Sharp, Conservator: Pictorial Art

© 2023 The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Publishing During the Enlightenment

History

The Enlightenment is defined as a literary movement, which emerged from the Protestant Reformation, that emphasized philosophy, politics, (democracy and reasoning), and science, moving away from religion. A lot of these new ideas were products of the translated literature that was published during the 18th century and circulated in Europe. The spread of these ideas and translations lead to the growth of the book market. With the growth of the market came the introduction of copyright laws, a growth in libraries, and a decline in censorship.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard, ‘The Reader,’ c. 1776.NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, DC VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS

During the Enlightenment, reading habits changed significantly; people read more for pleasure and to expand their knowledge. Many writers experimented with new genres and storytelling techniques. Some well-known Enlightenment writers are Albert Einstein, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Montesquieu, and Immanuel Kant. These authors are often the ones most thought of when one thinks of the Enlightenment era, but many women were involved in publishing during this time period.

Some significant women authors of the Enlightenment are Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Catherine Macaulay, Mary Astell, Mary Chudleigh, and Louise d’Épinay who advocated for the education and the rights of women. During most of the Enlightenment, a married woman had to have her husband’s permission to publish her work. However, women gradually accessed publishing more easily during the 18th century as more books were targeted toward female readers and a more commercial attitude was adopted by publishers.

The copyright act of 1709

The copyright act of 1709 is the first copyright ever passed in the British Parliament. The act is also known as the Statute of Anne, named after the Queen of England. The act began its term on April 10, 1710, after other attempts at similar legislation failed to be enacted. The bill granted publishers 14 years of legal protection and 21 years of protection for books already published. The act could be renewed after the 14-year term if the author was still alive.

Public Domain

The Growth of Libraries

Libraries, as we know them today, are products of the Enlightenment. Starting in the 17th century, libraries were key to developing Enlightenment ideals. Bibliothèque Mazarine is the oldest library in France and attempted to collect books on every subject to promote study and research. Today it has one of the most abundant collections of rare books and manuscripts in France. The Library Company of Philadelphia is America’s first and oldest lending library that was founded by enterprising citizens who wanted to learn about science and philosophy. The two goals of Enlightenment were to support the creation of knowledge and to spread that knowledge.

“In 1731, Benjamin Franklin convinced members of the Junto, his “society of mutual improvement,” to pool their resources and purchase a collection of books none could have afforded individually. Articles of Agreement were drafted on July 1, 1731, and the Library Company of Philadelphia was established when 50 founding shareholders signed on. Each contributed 40 shillings and agreed to pay ten shillings per year thereafter. As the Library Company’s collection grew, the book capital of each shareholder expanded as well.”

© Copyright 2021 – The Library Company of Philadelphia

Magazine publishing as we know it today started after the invention of printing in the West. The earliest magazine is believed to be the German “Edifying Monthly Discussions.” Magazines during this time period summarized and advertised books or contained court news.

Front page of The Gentleman’s Magazine, founded by Edward Cave in London in January 1731. Wikimedia Commons

History & Impact of the Printing Press

History

What is movable type? How does it work?

Movable type is a printing method using individual pieces (blocks) that carry a single letter or character; these pieces can be assembled for printing in any desired combination. Movable type was first created by Bi Sheng in the 11th century. He used baked clay to create a block for each Chinese character. Then each clay character was arranged on an iron sheet, this process is called typesetting. After typesetting was complete an iron frame was placed around the type and was ready for printing. Wang Zhen of the Yuan dynasty is credited for creating the first wooden movable type, which was more durable than clay. The first metal moveable type was created in Korea in the 13th century.

“Movable Clay Type” by Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D. is marked with CC0 1.0.

“The invention of the movable metal type printer in Europe is usually credited to the German printer Johannes Gutenberg. However, there are other claims, notably the Dutch printer Laurens Janszoon Coster (c. 1370-1440 CE) and two other early German printers, Johann Fust (c. 1400-1465 CE) and his son-in-law Peter Schöffer (c. 1425-1502 CE). There is, too, evidence that movable metal type printers had already been invented in Korea in 1234 CE in the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392 CE). Chinese Buddhist scholars also printed religious works using moveable type presses; the earliest ones used woodblocks during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). Whether the idea of moveable type presses spread via merchants and travellers from Asia to Europe or if the invention by Gutenberg was spontaneous is still a point of debate amongst scholars.”

– Cartwright, M. (2020, November 02). The Printing Revolution in Renaissance Europe. World History Encyclopedia.

What is the printing press?

Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inviting the first printing press. His invention used movable pieces of metal type that could be reused and a press that created clear impressions on paper. In this process movable type was arranged on a wooden plate, ink was applied to the type, and a sheet of paper was put on top. Then another plate was brought down on top of the wooden plate pressing the paper and the type together. This allowed for about 250 sheets per hour.

“Gutenberg Bible” by NYC Wanderer is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

The invention of Gutenberg’s printing press resulted in a greater volume of books produced and easier access to these books (in terms of pricing). It allowed for more exposure, making writing a profession one could live off of. It also resulted in an increase in literacy and the spread of ideas and knowledge concerning religion, art, science, history, poetry, etc. Gutenberg printed an estimated 180 Bibles with his printing press. Of these 180 copies only 49 exist today. You can see one of these copies in person at the Morgan Library.

How did the printing press impact publishing?

Before the printing press, all books were produced by hand, engraving wood blocks and plates; therefore, making a book was more strenuous and time-consuming. After the invention of the printing press, books were produced much cheaper, quicker, and in larger quantities, resulting in mass production of books. The press allowed for more pages to be printed per day, creating a more efficient process; although, the technology was still new and many errors were made in many texts. The printing press aided the gradual distribution of different types of texts throughout society, resulting in the gradual distribution of knowledge worldwide.

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Publishing During the Renaissance

History

During the Renaissance, ideas of humanism and philosophy circulated throughout society, placing importance on human potential and expressing the value of current life rather than seeking happiness in the afterlife. In the 15th and 16th centuries, humanism was a progressive intellectual movement that spread across Europe. The movement emphasized intellectual advancement.

The Emergence of the Novel

“‘Hypnerotomachia Poliphili’ by Francesco Colonna (Venice 1499), the most beautiful illustrated book of European Renaissance, published by Aldo Manuzio (Bassiano 1449/1452-Venice 1515) – Temporary exhibition up to February 29, 2016 – National Library of Na” by Carlo Raso is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0.

The invention of the printing press resulted in the spread of religious texts but soon produced texts of reformation, romance novels, informative pamphlets, traveling guides, poetry, histories, etc. This was the beginning of the Renaissance period, which is often referred to as a period of rebirth of classical ideas and art. During this period more people read than ever before, ideas were spread all across Europe, and scholars began critiquing others’ work.

Religious works of literature were in high demand before the printing press was invented; therefore, after its invention, religious texts dominated the market. During the Medieval period, Christians used a Latin Bible and during this time period, there was a shift from Latin to English-translated Bibles, which allowed the book to be more widely read.

Between 1400 and 1600 a number of different types of texts were published, from pamphlets (called folios) to plays and poetry. Novels were first published during the Renaissance in France to compete with the Latin books being published. French book publishers called for more books published in French and drew on many Medieval texts for their readership.

“‘These book printers created a certain number of broad characteristics that would lead to the delimitation of a general category – the chivalric novel – based on distinct medieval literary forms”, says Burg. Her work involved analysing the changes in a corpus of five works, stretching from the first handwritten editions to those printed in the French publishing hubs of the 16th century. In total, some one hundred works became part of a re-emergent literature. Books describing knighthood reached their peak around 1540, but despite their subsequent decline, they were reborn as part of the foundations of the genre of the romantic novel.”

Brocard, Martine. “How Renaissance Publishers Invented the Novel.” Horizons, 9 Aug. 2018,.

Many believe the Japanese Epic, The Tale of Genji, written by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady-in-waiting in the 11th-century imperial court, to be the first novel ever written. It is a fictional story that follows the main character, Hikaru Genji, and his many romances. Check out the 2019 Tale of Genji exhibition at the MET.

“File:玉鬘図 （『源氏物語』画帖の内）-“The Jeweled Chaplet” (“Tamakazura”), from The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari) MET DP361161.jpg” by Tosa Mitsuyoshi is marked with CC0 1.0.

Italian Renaissance

Italy, Germany, and France played major roles in the construction of the printed book during the Renaissance. Italy produced more than 12,000 printed works in the 15th century and 65,000 during the 16th century, leading the age of print. Italian book merchants established links with other agents across Europe, which not only spread different cultures and ideas but also enabled the growth of printing and the book trade. During this time, many printers, booksellers, and publishers did not belong to a guild, meaning their business was unhindered by corporate regulations and received direct economic returns from their sales.

Sumerian Clay Tablet

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As early as 3200 B.C. Sumerian scribes (writing in Cuneiform) used clay tablets to record transactions. Cuneiform is the oldest form of writing that we know of. Some of the first literature ever written was in Cuneiform, most notably, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Cuneiform was replaced by alphabetic in the first century AD.

“File:Cuneiform tablet- account of expenditures, record of deliveries of animals for the festival of sowing seed MET hb11 217 29a.jpg” is marked with CC0 1.0.

The First Printed Book

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The Diamond Sutra is the oldest printed book in history dating back to around 1041-1048 AD in the Song Dynasty. The 17-foot-long scroll contains Sanskrit text translated into Chinese of Mahayana Buddhist sutras, which are believed to be dictated directly by the Buddha. Block printing was used to create The Diamond Sutra


“File:Diamond Sutra of 868 AD – The Diamond Sutra (868), frontispiece and text – BL Or. 8210-P.2.jpg” is marked with CC0 1.0.