In this chapter Creswell focuses on data collection and begins by describing the process of data collection as a “circle” of interrelated activities that include, but go beyond collecting data (depicted on pg. 146). He explains each of these activities, explores how they differ for each of the five approaches to inquiry, and on pages 148-149, provides a data collection table. The phases of the data collection process include locating site/individual, gaining access and making rapport, purposefully sampling, collecting data, recording info, resolving field issues, and storing data.
Individuals can be selected by chance, emerge from a wider study, or be volunteers. Creswell explains the individual selection process for five different approaches along with examples (Fig. 7.1 pg. 120; 2nd Edition). Researchers interested in studying their own organizations, places of work, or themselves, may pose issues concerning power and risk to the participants and the site. Accessing sites and individuals requires permission from the Institutional Review Board by submitting a proposal. The author provides a sample consent form in Fig. 7.2 (pg.152) and the procedures to follow for accessing sites and building rapport (pg.154).
Creswell describes purposeful sampling, one of the most common sampling strategies, as a technique for group participants according to pre-selected criteria relevant to a particular research question. Considerations include who/what should be sampled; what form the sampling will take; how many people/sites need to be sampled; is the sampling consistent with the information needed by one of the five approaches to inquiry. Several qualitative sampling strategies are listed in Table 7.2 (p.158). The most popular approach is maximum variation, which consists of determining in advance the criteria that differentiate sites/participants and then selecting sites/participants that are different on those criteria. The author’s recommendation on the sampling size is on pg. 157.
Observations, interviews, documents and using audiovisual materials are the popular data collection approaches and Fig. 7.3 (pg.160) lists these in detail. When conducting an interview, the author recommends identifying interviewees based one of the sampling procedures listed in Fig. 7.2 (pg. 158). Different types of interviews include telephone, focus group, and one-on-one. The elements of an interview are listed on pages 163-166 and a sample interview protocol is listed on Fig. 7.4 (pg. 165). Observation addresses issues such as the potential deception of people being interviewed, impression management, and the potential marginality of the researcher in a strange setting. Things to consider while observing are listed on pages 167-168. The author provides instructions for recording interviews on page 168 and example instructions for observing on Table 7.5 (pg. 169). Observation can include a ‘descriptive section,’ which details the chronology of events that have occurred and a ‘reflective’ section for notes about the process. It is important to record the information by ‘logging’ or ‘jotting down’ the data.
Creswell discusses some of the field issues that researchers may encounter in the data collection process. The issues he mentions pertain to gaining access to the organization, observation, interviews, documents and audiovisual materials, and ethical issues. In order to gain access to an organization, the author recommends that the site selected should be one in which the researcher does not have a vested interest (i.e. their own place of employment) since their closeness to the organization may affect their ability to code and clearly look at all aspects of the research experience. Issues that arise in observations and interviews can be related to the mechanics of conducting these activities. In terms of observation and interviewing, Cromwell recommends researchers take notes and record information accurately. Interviews can be taxing for new researchers and there should be collaboration in the way the interview is conducted so that both the interviewer and interviewee are sharing information equally. Documents and audiovisual materials (e.g. journals or video recordings) assigned to research subjects as part of the data collection process may result in the researcher having to decipher written materials that is difficult to read. Researchers are faced with ethical challenges in the data collection process (consent, coercion, confidentiality, deception, or the sharing of the researcher’s own personal experiences).
In terms of storing data, Creswell provides a listing on page 175 that details 5 important principles on how to store and handle a variety of data used in qualitative research projects.
The author concludes the chapter with a comparison of the five approaches (pg. 176) and how the approaches differ in their diversity depending upon what is being researched and the type of data that is being collected for the research project.
