Positivism is an epistemological position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is sticking to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that is impossible. In the positivist view, the universe is deterministic. It operates by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we apply the unique approach of the scientific method. Science is largely a mechanical affair. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation.

However, since the middle part of the 20th century things have changed in our views of science. Probably the most important has been our shift away from positivism into what is called post-positivism.  Postpositivism recognizes that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are essentially the same process. There is no difference in kind between the two, only a difference in degree. Postpositivism recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. Where the positivist believed that the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadily to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that goal.

Hacking, Ian. (1983). Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among the five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Queer theory is a theoretical lens that may be used in qualitative research that focuses on gay, lesbian, or homosexual identity and how it is culturally and historically constituted, linked to discourse, and overlaps gender and sexuality (Watson, 2005).

It is characterized by a variety of methods and strategies relating to individual identity; and explores the complexities of the construct, identity, and how identities reproduce and “perform” in social forums (Creswell, 2012). The term itself, “queer theory”, rather than gay, lesbian, or homosexual theory – allows for keeping open to question the elements of race, class, age, and anything else (Turner, 2000). Plummer (2005) provides an overview of the queer theory stance:

• Both the heterosexual/homosexual binary and the sex/gender split are challenged
• There is a decentering of identity
• All sexual categories (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, heterosexual) are open, fluid, and nonfixed
• Mainstream homosexuality is critiqued
• Power is embodied discursively
• All normalizing strategies are shunned
• Academic work may become ironic, and often comic and paradoxical
• Versions of homosexual subject positions are inscribed everywhere
• Deviance is abandoned, and interest lies in insider and outsider perspectives and transgressions
• Common objects of study are films, videos, novels, poetry, and visual images
• The most frequent interests include the social worlds of the so-called radical sexual fringe (e.g, drag kings and queens, sexual playfulness).

Queer theory often finds expression in cultural texts (e.g., films, literature); ehtnographies and case studies of sexual worlds that challenge assumptions; data sources that contain multiple texts; documentaries that include performances; and projects that focus on individuals (Plummer, 2005).

Cresswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry & research design (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Plummer, K. (2005). Critical humanism and queer theory: Living with the tensions. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 357-373). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Turner, W. (2000). A genealogy of queer theory. Philadelphia:Temple University Press.

Watson, K. (2005). Queer theory. Group Analysis, 38 (1), 67-81

Social constructivism is an interpretive framework whereby individuals seek to understand their world and develop their own particular meanings that correspond to their experience (Creswell, 2013). These meanings are not etched or innate within each individual. Rather, meanings are formed through interaction with others (Creswell, 2013). Social constructionism has its origins in sociology and emerged over thirty years ago (Andrews, 2012). Also referred to as interpretivism, social constructivism has been associated with the post-modern era in qualitative research (Andrews, 2012). Social constructivists view knowledge and truth as created by the interactions of individuals within a society (Andrews, 2012). Some researchers suggest that language predates concepts and allows an individual to structure the way their world is experienced (Andrews, 2012). This interpretive framework is useful in phenomenological research studies.

In my phenomenological study of employee perceptions, I applied the interpretive framework of social constructivism by asking research participants open-ended questions (suggested by Creswell, p.25). This approach allowed the research participants to fully and freely describe their own experiences. As the researcher, my role was to listen carefully to their views and interpret the findings based on their background and experiences (Creswell, 2013). The interpretation of their experiences revealed a significant amount of information regarding the phenomenon (employee perceptions) and also offered new insight to the overall study. Applying the social constructionism framework was the most useful approach in gaining access to the views and nuances that influenced the individual worlds of my research participants.

Andrews, T. (2012). What is social constructionism? The Grounded Theory Review, 11 (1). 39-46.

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among the five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Methodological assumptions consist of the assumptions made by the researcher regarding the methods used in the process of qualitative research (Creswell 2003). The procedures used by the researcher are inductive and are based on the researcher’s own experience in collecting and analyzing data. The research here is the product of the values of the researcher. Through an inductive approach, raw textual data is condensed into a brief, summary format. Clear links are established between research objectives and summary findings derived from raw data. A framework of the underlying structure of experiences or processes that are evident from the raw data is developed.

In adopting this approach the research questions might change in the middle of the study so that the research problem is better understood. Due to this, the strategy to collect data, which is usually developed before the study begins, has to be modifies to accommodate new questions. The researcher analyzes the data to develop an in-depth knowledge about the topic under consideration.

Application of Methodological Assumptions to Qualitative Research:

The main question addressed by these assumptions is: What is the process of research? Here the researcher uses an inductive logic, studies the topic within its context, and the employs the emerging framework/model. The researcher works with the details and specific information before generalizing. He then describes the context of the study in detail. Through the experiences that the researcher gains from the field, the research questions are continually revised (Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1988). Do inquiry paradigms imply inquiry methodologies? In D. M. Fetterman (Ed.), Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education (89-115)).

Pragmatism is an American philosophical movement or interpretive framework “holding that truth and value can only be determined by practical application and consequences”(O’Leary, Z., 2007). Pragmatists are concerned with knowledge that is useful and which helps individuals solve practical problems (In Vogt, Paul W.; 2005). A central notion of pragmatism is “that truth is found in ‘what works’ and that truth is relative to the current situation;” or in other words  that “truth is not  seen as an absolute but a moveable and usable construct for understanding the nature of reality” (McCaslin, M., 2008).

Researchers using this framework will use multiple methods of data collection, techniques, and procedures of research that “best meet their needs and purposes” and that best address their research questions (Creswell, 2013). Creswell notes, for example, that this framework is used when researchers doing case study or ethnography use both qualitative and quantitative (i.e. surveys) data collection (p.29).

Creswell, John W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Among Five 
      Approaches. (3rd ed., pp. 28-29). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

McCaslin, M. (2008). Pragmatism. In Lisa M. Given (Ed). The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative
     Research Methods. (pp. 672-676). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. doi:
10.4135/978142963909.n336

O’Leary, Z. (2007). Pragmatism. In the Social Science Jargon Buster. (pp. 207-209). SAGE
Publications Ltd. Doi: 10.4135/9780857020147.n103

Pragmatism. (2005). In W. Paul Vogt (Ed.), Dictionary of Statistics & Methodology.
(3rd ed., p. 244). SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412983907.n1482

Philosophical assumptions are less apparent in research than the theories that are employed, but they underlie the fundamental choices that are made in answering research questions. In other words, there are certain basic assumptions about how research should be done (and reported) that are deeply engrained through scholarly training, and these philosophical assumptions guide researchers to different methods (i.e. theories) of conducting their research (Creswell, 15-18).

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion (Aristotle 1946, Book I.2. as cited in O’Neill, 1998). The rhetorical structure of your paper is how you go about persuading your reader that what you are saying is worth something. There are certain formatting expectations for all scientific research reports (such as APA style) and more specific expectations for different types of research. The specific rhetorical assumption you will use depends on the type of study being conducted (e.g. ethnographic, grounded theory, case study, etc.) and is the basis for the structure of your research report. No matter what type of research you are doing, the overall rhetorical assumption in qualitative research is that you are not “truth seeking” or omniscient but instead reporting what reality is through the eyes of your research participants. Chapter 9 of Creswell outlines these formatting expectations for each different type of study.

This is important for all of our studies because it means that we are reporting on what we saw and heard in the most objective way possible, but we are not concerned with gathering quantitative data and doing statistical tests. Rather the rhetorical style of our research reports is more humanistic and about thorough descriptive and interpretive writing about our research results.

O’Neil, J. (1998). Rhetoric, science, and philosophy. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 28(2), 205-225.

Enjoy a beautiful story and a mixed methods introduction.